■

.

\

4

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

-P ■ S&U r

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

PERTHSHIRE

SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE

VOLUME VII.

1918 TO 1923.

PERl'H :

PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, ,

AT THE PERTHSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM.

I923.

MONRO AND SCOTT, PRINTERS, PERTH

INDEX.

CONTENTS.

Index to Subjects —

Antiquarian, .

Botanical,

Geological, .

Zoological, .

General, ••• ••• ••• •••

Species more Specially Noted —

Animals —

Vertebrate,

Invertebrate,

Plants —

Phanerogams, ... .

Cryptogams,

Index to Contributors, ... .

Illustrations, .

PAGE

v

v

vi
vi
vi

vi

vi

vi

vi

vii
vii

SUBJECT INDEX.

PAGE

Antiquarian —

Caledonian Camp in the Stormont, The, ... ... ... ... 28

Haer Cairns in the Stormont, The, ... ... ... ... 28

Steed Stalls in the Stormont, The, ... ... ... ... ... 28

Stone Implements in the Perth Museum, A Descriptive Catalogue of, ... 122

Botanical —

Charophytes collected at Lochs Lubnaig and Vennachar, Note on, ... 268

Cotyledon Umbilicus found near Loch Vennachar, Note on, ... ... 269

Discomycetes of Perthshire, A List of the, ... ... ... ... 2

Myxomycete, Note on a Rare, ... ... ... ... ... 1

Perthshire Flora, The Distribution of the, ... ... ... ... 151

Plant Structure, Anomalies -of, ... ... ... ... ... 37

Potamogetons of the Earn District of Perthshire, ... ... ... 264

Sarcoscypha protracta (Fr.), Sacc., in Perthshire, Note on, ... ... 149

Zannichellia palustris (Linn.) in Perthshire, ... 74

VI.

INDEX.

Geological — page

Geological Deductions from the Strata passed through in the Artesian

Boring at the Water House, Perth, August, 1917, ... ... 245

Zoological —

Ciliata, The, ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 107

Infusoria found in District round Perth, List of Species of, ... ... 116

Invertebrate Fauna of Perthshire : The Land and Freshwater Mollusca, 179
Museum Notes, ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 106

Rhizopods of Perthshire, ... ... ... ... ... ... 91

General —

Cairngorm Mountains seen from Perth,

Foods, Facts and Fallacies about, ...

McIntosh, Charles — 1839-1922,

MacNab, Robert — A Forgotten Perthshire Botanist,

Meteoric Fall of Strathmore of 3rd December, 1917, History of the,
Pasteur, Louis,

54

174

7i

80

SPECIES MORE SPECIALLY NOTED.

Animals —

Vertebrate.

PAGE

Ampelis garrulus,

106

Felis catus,

106

Meles taxus, ...

106

Invertebrate.

Acanthocinus aedelis, ...

106

Azeca tridens, ...

... 205

Chelonia caja, ...

106

Hyalinia helvetica,

192

Phlegethontius convolvuli,

106

Pisidium hibernicum, ...

... 223

Pisidium milium,

Pisidium nitidum,

... 223

... 223

Pisidium obtusale,

224

Pisidium pulchellum, ...

224

Pisidium subtruncatum,

225

Sirex cyaneus,

106

Sirex gigas,

106

Sphyradium minutissimum,

208

Valvata cristata,

Plants —

218

Phanerogams.

Cotyledon Umbilicus, ... ... 269

Potamogeton panormitanus, ... 265

Potamogeton pectinatus, ... 265

Zannichellia palustris, ... ... 74

Cryptogams.

Ascobolus Carletoni, ... ... 10

Anthracobia nitida, ... ... 8

Cyathicula alba, ... ... ig

Cudonia confusa, ... ... 13

Dasyscypha campylotrichi, • ... 20

Dasyscypha globuligera, ... 20

Dasyscypha perplexa, ... ... 20

Discinella Menziesia, ... ... 15

Encoelia tiliacea, ... ... 26

Helotium rubescens, ... ... 18

Helotium sparsum, ... ... \y

Heloti um tetra-ascosporum, ... 19

Humaria tetraspora, ... ... 9

Linbladia effusa, ... ... 1

Mitrula sclerotipus, ... ... 13

Nitella spanioclema, ... ... 268

Ombrophila megalaspora, ... 14

Ombrophila Nigripes, ... ... 14

Pustularia patavina, ... ... 5

Rhyparobius albidus, ... ... 11

Rhyparobius dubius var. lagopi, 11

Sarcoscypha protracta, ... 149

Scleroderris bacillifera, ... 26

Sepultaria foliacea, ... ... 6

Sphaeridiobolus hyperboreus, ... 10

Trichopeziza flavo-fulginea, ... 22

INDEX.

VII.

CONTRIBUTORS.

PAGE

Asher, John, F.S.A.(Scot.),

Barclay, William, F.E.I.S.,

Bates, George F., B.A., B.Sc.,

Coates, Henry, F.R.S.E., F.S.A.(Scot.),
Craigie, James,

Matthews, J. R., M.A., F.L.S., ...
Menzies, James,

McLagan, Frank,

Ritchie, John, F.R.A.I., ...

Ritchie, John, M.A., LL.B.,

Scott, Alex. M., ...

Smith, Noel J. G., M.A., B.Sc., ...
Stewart, Dr. C. Parker, M.O.H., ...

122

71

• •• 37.253

80, 179, 245
107

74, 15 1 , 264
I, 2, 149, 174
91
106
104
28
268

54

ILLUSTRATIONS.

PLATE.

TO FACE PAGE

4. Bougainvillaea glabra, Photomicrograph of Transverse Section of

Stem of, (Fig. 2), ... ... ... ... ... 52

16. Cairngorm Range, Summits in the, seen from the neighbourhood

of Perth, ... ... ... ... ... ... 106

1. Haer Cairns, etc., Stormont, Plan of Site of, ... ... . ... 36

0

3*

Hakea

suaveolens, Photomicrograph of Transverse Section

of

Leaf of, (Fig. 1), ...

. . .

52

3-

Lycium

barbarum, Photomicrograph of Transverse Section

of

Stem of, (Fig. 2), ...

...

52

Maps

21.

i.

Perthshire — Botanical Districts of Dr. White, ...

...

170

27.

vii.

,, — Chiefly Highland Floral Species, Distribution of.

170

26.

vi.

,, — Chiefly Lowland ,, ,, ,,

170

25-

V.

,, — Entirely Highland ,, ,, ,,

170

24.

iv.

,, — Entirely Lowland ,, ,, ,,

170

23-

iii.

,, — Temperate ,, ,, ,,

170

22.

ii.

,, — Regional Distribution of Floral Species,

170

28.

Tay Basin, Lower, Sketch Map of,

...

252

2.

Menyanthes trifoliata, Photomicrograph of Transverse Section

of

Rhizome of, (Fig. 1),

. . .

52

5*

Meteorite of Strathmore, 1917 — Appearance as seen from Edinburgh,

90

8.

J 5

,, ,, — Carsie Fragment, The, ...

. . .

90

9-

5 5

,, ,, — Carsie, The Hole at,

. . •

90

12.

y y

,, ,, — Corston Fragment, The,

. . .

90

13-

10.

— Corston, The Hole in Lawn at, ...
— Essendy Fragment, The,

90

90

vm.

INDEX.

PLATE. TO FACE

ii. Meteorite of Strathmore, 1917 — Essendy, The Hole in Field at, ...

6. ,, ,, ,, — Keithick Fragment, The,

7, ,, ,, ,, — Keithick, The South Lodge,

15. ,, ,, ,, — Diagrammatic Elevation, showing

Course of the Falling Meteor,

14. ,, ,, ,, — Sketch Plan of the District, showing

where the Four Fragments fell,

4. Piper geniculatum, Photomicrograph of Transverse Section of
Stem of, (Fig. 1), ...

Stone Implements in the Perth Museum,

yy
yy
y y

yy

yy

y y

yy

yy

yy

*7-

18.

19.

20.

28. Tay Basin, Lower, Sketch Map of,

30. Water Works, Perth, Geological Section through Tay Valley at,

29. Water Works, Perth, Section of Artesian Boring,

2. Yellow Water Lily, Photomicrograph of Transverse Section
Petiole of, (Fig. 2),

of

PAGE

90

90

90

90

90

52

148

148

148

148

252

252

252

52

5 DEC 21

NATURAL

HISTORY.

TRANSACTIONS

AND

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

PERTHSHIRE

SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE

VOLUME VIE
Part E — 1918 19.

PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, ,

AT THE PERTHSHIRE NO RURAL HISTORY MUSEUM.

I9I9-

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF

NATURAL SCIENCE.

- ++ -

L — Note on a Rare Myxomycete.

By James Menzies.

(Read 8th November, 1918.)

LINBLADIA EFFUSA ROST.

I found a group of this curious looking species during the past
autumn on an old sawdust heap at Kinfauns. The largest of the
group was seven of eight inches long by about four broad, the
Plasmodium presenting the appearance of a mass of tar poured
out on the sawdust, the surface rough and reflecting the light.
This black mass was seated on a tough hypothallus by which it
could be moved without apparent injury. Visiting the spot a
month later I found the sporangia closely compacted together,
brownish in colour, and breaking up into a dusty mass when
handled. By the end of October they were greatly disorganised
and, in some instances, the hypothallus bore a crop of Stilbum
orbiculare B. and Br.

There is no record of Linbladia effusa having been found
previously in Perthshire. ' In Stevenson’s Mycologia Scotica it is
only mentioned as having been found at Aboyne by the late Rev.
James Keith.

2

TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

II. — .4 List of the Discomycetes of Perthshire.
By James Menzies.

(Read nth April, 1919.)

In the following list we have attempted to bring together all the
species of Discomycetes which have been found or recorded as
occurring in the county.

For a number of years Mr. Charles M‘Intosh of Inver and myself
have devoted special attention to these fungi, and I have on several
occasions contributed to* the Transactions of the Society an account
of my discoveries in the neighbourhood of Perth. Previous to this
nearly all records of these fungi occurring in Perthshire was the
uork of Dr. Buchanan White. In the year 1880, Dr. White pub¬
lished in the “ Scottish Naturalist ” (vol 5) his Preliminary List of
Perthshire Fungi, which included about one hundred Discomycetes
with the localities where they were found.

Ten years later Professor James Trail of Aberdeen published in
Vol. 10 of the “ Scottish Naturalist ” a revision of the Scottish
Discomycetes, and an additional contribution was made to this list
by Dr. White. As this list is arranged according to River Basin
Areas no particular locality is usually given.

In the present list all these previous records are noted. In all
instances when the plant has been re-discovered the new record
will take precedence. Those from the Preliminary List are marked
P.L., and if deemed rare the locality given those from Professor
Trail’s list are marked, Rev. of Scots. Disco. Tay. LTnless other¬
wise stated all records from the Dunkeld district are the work of
Mr. Charles M‘Intosh, all of which I have been privileged to
examine. Thoise from the Perth district and various parts of the
county have been found by myself. New species discovered or
species not hitherto found in Britain have been recorded and
described in the Transactions of the British Mycological Society
and these records are here referred to.

The nomenclature and arrangement is that given by Boudier in
his “Histoire et Classification des Discomycetes de Europe ” as set
forth by Mr. J. Ramsbottom, M.A., F.L.S. in the Transactions of
the British Mycological Society. My thanks are due to Mr. Carletoo
Rea, B.C.L., M.A., for much kindly help in the identification of the
species. I am also indebted to Moos. E. Boudier for his kindness
in dealing with a number of the more critical ones.

JAMES MENZIES ON DISCOMYCETES OF PERTHSHIRE.

3

Operculeae.

Morchellacea.

Morchella, Dill.

M. vulgaris (Pers.), Boud.

P.L. as M. esculenta. Inver and Invermay. On the
ground.

Helvellaceae.

Physomitra.

P. esculenta (Pers.), Boud.

Balgarvie, Murthly, Dunkeld, Falls of Moness, Crieff.
J. W. Kippen, Ardblair ; A. Gray. P.L. From various
parts of the County. On the ground, often about old
, stumps.

Helvella, Linn.

H. orispa (Scop), Fr.

Not uncommon on bare or grassy ground in woods, also
on road scrapings and scourings of ditches. P.L.

H. lacunosa, Afz.

Occurs under the same conditions as the previous species,
although not quite so common. P.L. Rannoch.

Leptopodia, Boud.

L. elastica (Bull), Boud.

Kinnoull, Bonhard, and Almond Mouth. P.L. Moncrieff.
On the ground in woods.

L. pulla (Holmsk).

Scone Woods, on the ground.

Pezizaceae-

Acetabula, Fuck.

A. vulgaris, Fuck.

P.L. Glen Tilt, on the ground.

A. ancilis (Pers.), Boud.

Kinfauns, Murrayshall, and Scone. Occurs at Dunkeld.
On the ground about pine stumps and in old sawdust
heaps.

Macropodia, Fuck.

M. Macropus (Pers.), Fuck.

Not uncommon. P.L. from various localities. On the
ground.

4

TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

Rhizina, Fr.

R. inflata (Schaeff) , Karst.

Not infrequent on burned ground near pine stumps.
Rev. of Scots. Disco. Tay.

Disciotis, Boud.

D. venosa (Pers.), Boud.

P.L. Banks of the Almond.

Var. reticulata Grev.

Near Almond mouth, amongst Petasites vulgaris. Aber-
dalgie, on grassy ground.

Aleuria, Fr.

A. vesiculosa (Bull), Bond.

Frequent on dung heaps and rich soil. Rev. of Scots.
Disco. Tay.

A. cerea (Low), Gill. Rev. of Scots. Disco. Tay.

A. repanda (Pers.), Gill.

Kinnoull, Scone, and Alyth. On the ground under
beeches. Rev. of Scots. Disco. Tay.

A. sterigmatizans (Phill), Boud.

Muir ward of Scone. On bare damp soil.

A. subrepanda (Cook et Phill), Boud.

Tullymet, on mad scrapings. C.M. and I.M.

A. sepiatra (Cook), Boud.

Not infrequent near Perth. On damp soil and road scrap¬
ings. Occurs at Dunkeld.

A. viola cea (Pers.), Gill.

Occurs about Perth on clay banks. More frequent on
char heaps. Dunkeld on char.

A. umbrina, Bond.

Dunkeld on char heaps.

Galactinia, Cook.

G. badia (Pers.), Bond.

Common on damp bare soil. Occurs in almost incredible
profusion around the wooded margin of Methven Bog'.
P.L.

G. succosa (Berk), Sacc.

Scone, Kinnoull and Alyth. On bare heavy soil and road
scrapings.

G. pustulata (Hedw), Boud.

Not infrequent about Perth on char heaps.

G. Phillipsii (Cook), Boud.

Quarrymill, several seasons. On damp sandy soil.

JAMES MENZIES ON DISCOMYCETES OF PERTHSHIRE.

5

Plicaria, Fuck.

P. leiocarpa (Curr), Boud.

Kinfauns, Scone, Muir ward of Lethendy. On char heaps.
Occurs at Inver on char.

P. trachycarpa (Curr), Boud.

Kinnoull, Scone, and Inver. On char heaps and burnt
ground.

P. Persoonii (Cr.), Boud.

Not uncommon in the neighbourhood of Perth. On clay
banks, in quarries, and shady situations.

Pachyella, Boud.

P. depressa (Phill), Boud. Humaria Oocardii Sacc.

Not uncommon in the smaller streams near Perth. At
Methven Bog, Craighall, and the Alyth Burn. On sodden
wood.

Otidea, Pers.

O. onotica (Pers.), Fuck.

Distributed. P.L. from various parts of the county. On
the ground in woods.

O. leporina Batsch (Fuck).

Not uncommon. P.L. Rossie Priory. On the ground
in woods.

O. cochleata (Linn), Fuck.

Not uncommon. P.L.

O. phlebophora, B. et Br.

Scone. On the ground by the side of the high road.

PUSTULARIA , Fuck.

P. cupularis (Linn), Fuck.

Bonhard, Scone, and Quarrymill. P.L. Moncrieff.
On damp soil in woods and ditches.

P. patavina (Cook et Sacc), Boud.

Kinfauns. On char and burnt ground. New to Britain.
Trans of Brit. Mycol. Soc., vol.4, p. 194.

... ; ■ 1 k : •

Geopyxis, Pers.

G. carbonaria (Alb. et Schw), Sacc.

Not uncommon about Dunkeld and Perth. On old char
heaps.

Peziza, Dill.

P. aurantia (Pers.).

Common. P.L. from various localities. About old stumps
and saw-dust pits ; also on damp clay soil.

6 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

P. luculenta (Cook), Bonhard.

P.L. Inver. On the ground.

P. rutilans, Fr.

Kinfauns, Scone, Pitlochry, and Blair Athol. P.L.
Rannoch. On the ground with species of Polytrichum
moss.

Var. vivida Nyl.

Campsie Linn. On soft sandy soil with Polytrichum
moss. P.L. as Peziza vivida, Rannoch.

Sarcoscypha, Fr.

S. coccinea lacq, Fr.

Glenalmond. A. S. Reid. On oak sticks. Rev. of Scots.
Disco. Tay.

Leucoscypha, Boud.

L. nivea (Rommell), Boud.

Banks of the Farg, near Barley Mill. On bare clay soil
in deep shade.

Tricharia, Boud.

T. gilva, Boud.

Gannochy, on clay. Scone, on road scrapings. Dunkeld,
on an accumulation of rubbish in a field horse stall.

T. cretea (Cook), Boud.

Kinfauns, Dunkeld ,and Cairnies. On char heaps.

Lachnea, Fr.

L. hemispherica (Wigg) Gill.

Not infrequent near Perth, on damp bare soil under oak
trees. Pitlochry and Alyth, on road scrapings under oaks.
P.L. Mon crieff.

L. cirmabarina (Schwein), Mass et Crossl.

Scone, on the scourings of a ditch. Dunkeld, on sandy
soil.

Sepultaria, Fr.

S. foliacea (Schaeff), Boud.

Quarrymill, Muirward of Scone, and Buckie Braes. On
damp sandy soil with the finer mosses. New to Britain.
Trans, of the Brit. Mycol. Society, vol. 4, p. 195.

Humariaceae.

Trichophaea, Boud.

T. gregaria (Rehm), Boud.

The Hermitage, Dunkeld. Not uncommon in the neigh-

JAMES MENZIES ON DISCOMYCETES OF PERTHSHIRE.

7

bourhood of Perth, Glenfarg, and Gask. On bare heavy
soil.

T. Woolhopcia (Cook et Phill), Bond.

Quarrymill, Bonhard, Cherrybank, and Dunning". On
bare heavy soil, rarely on burnt ground or char.

Desmazierella, Lib.

D. acicola, Lib.

Kinfauns and Inver. On the leaves of fallen or cut
branches of Pinus sylvestris.

ClLIARIA , Quell.

C. scutellata (Linn), Quell.

Common. On damp soil and rotten wood. P.L.

C. umbra ta (Fr.), Quell.

Old Scone road on heaps of road scrapings.

C. umbrorum (Fr.), Boud.

Frequent near Perth. On damp soil and road scrapings.
Occurs at Dunkeld.

C. hirta (Schum), Boud.

Scone, Kinfauns, and Cherrybank. P.L. Moncrieff.
On damp soil.

C. setosa (Nees), Bond.

Not uncommon near Perth. On fallen trunks and stumps.
Dunkeld on saw-dust.

C. brunnea (Alb. et Schw.), Boud.

Scone. On old char heaps.

C. trichispora (B. et Br.), Boud.

Not uncommon near Perth, Methven Wood, and Glenfarg.
P.L. Moncrieff and Craighall. On damp clay soil.

C. confusa (Cook), Boud.

Falls of Tummel, Dunkeld, Scone and Kinnoull. On char
heaps amongst Funaria hygrometrica.

C. Phillipsii (Mass.), Bond.

Kinfauns two seasons in succession. On the fine ash of
a char heap.

Cheilymenia, Boud.

C. theleboloides (Alb. et Schw.), Boud.

Whinnymuir and Muir ton. On heaps of town’s refuse

carted to the fields. Rev. of Scots. Disco. Tay.

C. subhirsuta (Schum), Boud.

Inver on sandy soil.

C. dalmeniensis (Cook), Boud.

Not rare near Perth, Methven Woods, Glenfarg, Dunkeld,
Moulin, and Alyth. On damp soil amongst nettles.

8 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

C. s ter core a (Pers.), Boud.

Not uncommon on horse and cow dung- in shady pastures.
Rev. of Scots. Disco. Tay.

C. coprinaria (Cook) Bond.

Parkfield hill pastures, several seasons. A small form of
this species occurring on rabbit dung in spring, is not un¬
common near Perth and at Dunkeld. Rev. of Scots. Disco.
Tay, Rannoch.

C. ascoboloides (Bert.), Boud.

Muirhall, on the ground where manure had lain.

Melastiza, Boud.

M. miniata (Fuck), Boud.

Scone, on road scrapings. Appeared in extraordinary
profusion at Inver, on sandy soil, August, '1917.

Anthracobia, Fr.

A. nitida, Boud.

Kinfauns, on the fine ash of a char heap. New to Britain.
Trans, of the Brit. Mycol. Soc., vol. 4, p. 196. This
species has now been found to be of common occurence in
Perthshire.

A. maurilabra (Cook), Boud.

Not infrequent and often accompanying- the previous
species, on the char heaps.

FI UMAR ia, Fr.

H. Humosa (Fr.), Sacc.

Kinfauns, Campsie Linn, and Alyth. On the ground

amongst moss. Rev. of Scots. Disco. Tay.

H. fusispoira (Berk.), Sacc.

Rev. of Scots. Disco. Tav.

H. aggregata (B. et Br.), Sacc.

Rev. of Scots. Disco. Tay.

H. Roumegueri (Karst), Sacc.

Kinnoull and Kinfauns. On mossy ground. Yar.,

carnosissima Phill — Dunkeld, on old bleached cow dung

and other dead vegetable matter.

H. convexula (Pers.), Quell.

Muirward of Lethendy. On sandy soil amongst moss.

H. semimmersa (Karst), Sacc.

Parkfield and Inver. On old cow dung.

H. leucofoma (Hedw.), Sacc.

Kinfauns and Pitlochrv. On sandv or moorish soil

* *

amongst moss.

JAMES MENZIES ON DISCOMYCETES OF PERTHSHIRE.

9

H. pilifera (Cook), Sacc.

Scone, and at the Hermitage, Dunkeld. On old char
heaps.

H. rubens, Boud.

Not uncommon on the Sidlaws, on the ground sometimes
amongst moss. Muirward of Lethendy and Inver, amongst
char.

H. Wrightii (Berk et Cook), Boud.

Not infrequent near Perth on char heaps. Occurs at Dun¬
keld on char.

H. tetraspora (Fuck), Boud.

Muirward of Lethendy. On very old char heap amongst
moss, August, 1917. New to Britain. Trans, of Brit.
Mycol. Society, vol. 6, part 2, p. 62. Collected also by
Mr. M‘Intosh and myself on the Haug'hs at Ballinluig,
August, 1913, on which occasion, however, we failed
to identify the plant.

Lamprqspora, de Not.

L. miniata (Cr.), de Not.

Kinnoull and Campsie Linn. On sandy or moorish soil.
L. astroidea (Hazsb.), Boud.

Scone and Kinnoull. On bare soil.

L. modesta.

Not uncommon near Perth, Glen Lednock, and Dunning.
On wet soil.

Coprobia, Boud.

C. granulata (Bull.), Boud.

Not uncommon on cow dung in shady pastures. P.L.

Pui.VINULA, Boud.

P. cjnnabarina (Fuck), Boud.

Kinfauns, on sandy soil amongs moss. Kinnoull,
amongst soil atached to the roots of an upturned tree.

P. constellatio' (Cook), Boud.

The Hermitage, Dunkeld, Cherrybank, and Kinfauns.
On damp soil.

P. lecithin a, Cook.

Not infrequent in the Annaty Burn on sodden wood.

P. myrothecioides (B. et Br.).

P.L. Craighall.

- Ascobolaccaea.

Ascobolus, Pers.

A. denudatus, Fr.

Quarrymill, on damp clay. Scone, on road scrapings.

IO TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

A. Creuani, Boud.

Dunkeld, on sodden paper. Kinfauns, on rotten wood.

A. stercorarius (Bull), Schroet.

Frequent on cow dung. P.L. Rannoch.

A. aerugineus, Fr.

Whinnymuir. P.L. Glenshee. On cow dung.

A. vinosus, Berk.

Not uncommon near Perth and Methven Woods. On
rabbit dung.

A. viridulus, Phill et Plow.

Dunkeld, on grouse dung.

A. glaber, Pers.

Not infrequent on cow, sheep, and rabbit dung. P.L.

A. viridus, Curr.

Frequent near Perth and Glenfarg. On damp heavy soil.
A. atro-fuscus.

Kinfauns, Parkfield, Balgarvie, Stanley, and Glenfarg.
Around the margins of burnt ground
A. Carletoni, Boud.

Dunkeld, on grouse dung. New species, Trans of Brit.
Mycol. Soc. , vol. 4, p.62.

A. crenulatus, Karsten,

Phillips, Brit. Disco., p. 292. P.L. Rannoch on grouse
dung.

Dasyobolus, Sacc.

D. immersus (Pers.), Sacc.

Not uncommon on cowt dung. P.L. as Ascobolus.

Sphaeridiobolus, Boud.

S. hyperboreus (Karst), Boud.

Var: niveus Quell. Parkfield, on hedge prunings cut
green and gathered into heaps, undergoing a partial fer¬
mentation. First British specimens, Trans. Brit. Mycol.
Soc. (Vol. 4, page 317). Found a little later at Dunkeld
under the same conditions.

Saccobolus, Boud.

S. Kerverni (Cr.), Boud.

Dunkeld, on cow dung.

S. violascens, Boud.

Kinfauns and Parkfield, on rabbit dung.

Boudiera, Cook.

B. areolata, Cook et Phill.

Muirhall Quarry, on wet soil around the margin of the-

pool.

JAMES MENZIES ON DISCOMYCETES OF PERTHSHIRE.

II

Ascophanus, Boud.

A. carncus (Pers.), Boud.

Not uncommon amongst the refuse from the City carted
to the fields. On cotton rags lying in damp places,
Dunkeld, on horse dung.

A. hepaticus (Batsch.), Boud.

Kinnoull, Kinfauns, and Inver. On and amongst rabbit
dung.

A. cervarius (Phill.), Boud.

Balgarvie, on rabbit dung.

A. testaceus (Moug.), Phill.

Whinnymuir, on feathers. Parkfield, on woollen cloth.

A. microsporus (B. et Br.), Phill.

Inver, o n co w dung.

A. granuliformis (Cr.), Boud.

Not infrequent near Perth and Dunkeld, on cow dung.

A. argenteus (Curr), Boud.

P.L. Rannoch, as Ascobolus.

Lasiobolus, Sacc.

L. ciliatus (Berk.), Sacc.

P.L. Rannoch, as Ascobolus.

L. equineus (Mull.), Karst.

Frequent on dung of horses, cows, and sheep.

Var. pilosus, Fr.

P. L. -Rannoch , as Ascobolus.

L. macrotrichus, Rea.

Dunkeld, on sheep dung.

Rhyparobius, Boud.

R. albidus, Boud.

Parkfield, on twigs of Cytisus scoparius in a heap of
prunings which had been cut green. First British speci¬
mens. Trans. Brit. Myool. Soc. (Vol. 4, page 317).

R. crustaceus (Fuck), Rehm.

P.L. Rannoch, as Ascobolus Cookei.

R. dubius, Boud.

Dunkeld, on cow dung.

Var. lagopi, Boud.

Dunkeld, on grouse dung. New to Britain. Trans, of
the Brit. Mycol. Soc. (Vol. 3, pag-e 378).

Pyronemaceae.

Pyronema, Carus.

P. omphalodes (Bull.), Fuck.

Not infrequent near Perth, Dunkeld, and Pitlochry. On
char heaps.

12 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

P. domesticum (Sow), Sacc.

Gannochy, on burned cabbage stalks.

Exoasceae.

Taphrina, Fr.

T. aurea (Pers.), Fr.

Not uncommon near Perth. Occurs at Dunkeld. On
livng leaves of Populus.

Exoascus, Fuck.

E. Pruni, Fuck.

Dunkeld, on fruits of Prunus Padus. P.L. Glen Tilt and
St. Fillans.

E. alnitorquus (Tub), Sadeb.

P.L. Kinfauns, on leaves of Alnus glutinosus.

Inoperculeae.

Geoglossaceae.

Trichoglossum, Boud.

T. hirsuitum (Pers.) Boud.

Scone and Stanley, on the ground. P.L. Dunkeld.

Geoglussum, Pers.

G. glutinosum.

P.L. Dunkeld.

G. ophioglossoides.

Not uncommon. P.L. from various localities. In pastures
and open grassy spots in woods.

G. difforme, Fr.

Kinnoull and Muirward of Scone. P.L. From various parts
of the county. On the ground in woods and pastures.

Leptoglossum, Cook.

L. tremellosum, Cook.

P.L. Rannoch.

Microglossum, Gill.

M. viride (Pers.), Gill.

Scone, Kinnoull, and Inver. P.L. Falls of Lochay. On
damp heavy soil in woods.

Leotiaceae.

Spathuluria, Pers.

S. clavata (Schaeff), Sacc.

Dunkeld. P.L. from various parts of the county. On the
ground in woods.

TAMES MENZIES ON DISCOMYCETES OE PERTHSHIRE.

IS

Mitrula, Fr.

M. phalloides (Bull), Chev.

Not uncommon. On dead pine leaves in pools and ditches.

P.L.

M. cucullata (Batsch), Fr.

Kinfauns and Kinnoull. On dead leaves of Pinus sylvestris.
M. sclerotipus, Boud.

Quarrymill, on boggy ground, amongst Chrysosplenium
appostifolium. New to Britain. Trans, of the . Brit..
My col. Soc., vol. 3, p. 378.

Leotia, Hill.

L. lubrica (Scop), Pers.

Not uncommon. On the ground in woods. P.L.

Cudonia, Fr.

C. circinans (Pers.), Fr.

Dunkeld, on the ground, amongst pine leaves. Rev. .of
Scots. Disco. Tay.

C. confusa, Bries.

The Hermitage, Dunkeld. In the vicinity of beech trees,
and Tsuga Canadensis. First British specimens. Trans,
of the Brit. Mycol. Soc., vol. 1, p. 168.

ClJDONIELLA, SaCC.

C. acicularis (Bull), Sohroet.

Inver Wood. On oak stumps amongst moss.

Vibrissea, Fr.

V. truncorum (Alb. et Schw.), Fr.

P.L. Ballinluig.

AT. microscopia B. et Br.

P.L. Blackwood, Rannoch.

Apostemidium, Karst.

A. Guernisaci (Cr.), Boud.

Not uncommon near Perth, Methven Bog, Pitlochry, Aber-
feldy, and Alyth. On rotten wood in streams and ditches.

Ombrophilaceae.

Ombrophila, Fr.

O. clavus (A. et Schw.), Cook.

Not uncommon near Perth, and the Alyth Burn. On
rotten wood in streams and ditches. Rev. of Scots. Disco..

Tay.

14 TRANSACTIONS— PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

O. faginea (Pers.), Bond.

Not uncommon about Dunkeld and Perth. On beech mast
and twigs. Rev. of Scots. Disco. Tay.

O. alnieUa (Nyl.), Karst.

Kinfauns and Quarrymill. On female catkins of Alnus
glutinosis lying in damp places.

O. imberbis (Bull), Boud.

Stormontfield, Scone, and Dunkeld. On dead wood.

O, Nigripes (Pers.), Boud.

Kinnoull, on dead leaves of Pinus sylvestris and Abies
pectinata. First British specimens. Trans of the Brit.
My col. Soc. , vol. 4, page 197.

O. megalospora, Rea.

Dunkeld, on dead leaves of Carex in a stagnant pool. New
species. Trans, of the Brit. Mycol. Soc., vol. 5, page 256.

Pachydisca, Boud.

P. ochracea (Grev.), Boud.

Quarrymill, on dead twigs of hawthorn and willow.

P. brunnea (Phill.), Boud.

Comrie, on dead stems of Carex ampullacea in a dried up
pond.

P. scoparia (Cook), Boud.

Rev. of Scots. Disco. Tay. As Helotium.

P. marchantiae (Berk.), Boud.

Scone and Muirward of Lethendy. On fading leaves of
March anti as polymorph a.

P. laburni (B. et Br.), Bond.

Dunkeld, Bonhard, and Almond mouth. On dead branches
of Laburnum.

Calycella, Fr.

C. citrina (Hedw.), Quell.

Not uncommon. P.L. on dead wood.

C. lenticularis (Bull), Boud.

Rev. of Scots. Disco. Tay, as Helotium .

C. claroflava (Grev.), Boud.

Rev. of Scots. Disco. Tay, as Helotium .

C. sublenticularis (Fr.), Boud.

Scone, on stumps and twigs of birch.

C. pallescens (Pers.), Quell.

Not uncommon about Perth and Dunkeld. On dead
wood. P.L., as Helotium.

C. uliginosa (Fr.), Boud.

Cherrybank and Kinfauns. On dead wood in pools.

TAMES MENZIES ON DTSCOMYCETES OF PERTHSHIRE.

15

C. Humuli (Lash), Bond.

Bamff Den, Alyth. On dead stems of Humulus.

Discinella, Boud.

D. purpurascens (Pars.), Boud.

Muirward of Scone, on the ground.

D. exidiiformis (B. et Br.), Boud.

Kinfauns, Scone, and Muirward of Lethendy. On char
heaps. Often mixed with Anthracobia nitida and x4.
maurilabra.

D. Menziesia, Boud.

Muirhall Quarry, on clay soil about the roots of broom
bushes. New species. Trans, of the Brit. Mycol. Soc. ,
vol. 4, page 62.

Melachroia.

M. terrestris (Niessl.), Boud.

Muirward of Lethendy, Kinfauns, and the wooded margin
of Methvem Bog. On the humus formed of pine and larch
leaves.

Bulgariaceae.

' CORYNE TUL.

C. sarooides (Jacq.), Tul.

Not uncommon about Dunkeld and Perth. On dead
wood. Rev. of Scots. Disco. Tay as Ombrophila.

C. urnalis (Nyl.), Sacc.

Kinfauns and Kinnoull, on stumps and branches.

Bulgaria, Fr.

B. inquinans (Pers.), Fr.

Common, especially on oak trunks and branches. P.L.

Bulgriella, Karst.

B. pulla (Fr.), Karst.

Not uncommon about Dunkeld. On dead wood.

Calloriceae.

CORYNELLA, Boud.

C. atro-virens (Pers.), Boud.

Not uncommon at Dunkeld and near Perth. On rotten
wood. Rev. of Scots. Disco. Tay as Ombrophila.

POLYDESMIA, Boud.

P. pruinosa (B. et Br.), Boud.

Common on dead wood and bark. P.L. as Helotium.

1 6 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

Calloria, Fr.

C. fusaroides (Berk.), Fr,

Common on dead stems of nettle in shady places. P.L.
as Phialea.

C. cornea (B. et Br.), Phill.

Dunkeld, Kinfauns, and Almond mouth. On dead stems
of Phalaris and other grasses.

j

Orbilia ,t Fr.

O. rubella (Pers.), Karst.

Dunkeld and near Perth. On dead wood of oak, willow,
and rose.

O. vinosa (Alb. et Schw.), Karst.

Not uncommon/ On dead wood, bark, and rags. Rev.
of Scots Disco'. Tav as Calloria.

O. lutea-rubella (Nyl.), Karst.

Near Perth. Occurring on dead wood in ditches and bank's
of streams,

O. coccinella (Somm.), Fr.

Kinnoull, Bonhard, and Cherrybank. On wood and bark.
O. leucostigma, Fr.

Not uncommon on decayed wood. P.L. Dupplin.

O. zantho-stigma, Fr.

Not uncommon on decayed wood. Rev. of Scots. Disco
Tay.

Cibroiaceae.

ClBORIA , Fuck.

C. caucus (Rebeut), Fuck.

P.L. Moncrieff. On fallen catkins of poplars.

C. amentacea (Balb.), Fuck.

Not uncommon near Perth. On fallen female catkins of
the alder in autumn. P.L. Moncrieff, on catkins of
willow, spring.

C. Sydowiana, Rehm.

Not uncommon near Perth. On petioles and midribs
of oak leaves, in damp places.

SCLEROTINIA, Fuck.

S. tuberosa (Fledw.), Fuck.

Balgarvie and Almond mouth. Crieff, J. W. Kippen.
Rev. of Scots. Disco. Tay. Arising from selerotia pro¬
duced in the Rhizomes of Anemone nemorosa.

S. Curreyana (Berk.), Karst.

Parkfield hill pastures, frequent. From selerotia pro-

JAMES MENZIES OA DISCOMYCETES OF PERTHSHIRE.

17

duced in the pith of Juncus effusus and J. giomeratus.
P.L. Methven Bog.

S. Libertiana, Fuck.

Quarrymill, Taybank near Woody Island, and Almond
mouth. From selerotia produced in the stems of
comphrey, butter bur, and Myrrhis odoratat.

Phialea, Fr.

P. echinophila (Bulb.), Quell.

Bamff Road, Alyth. On husks of Spanish chesnut.

P. firma (Pers.), Gill.

Common. On dead oak wood. Rev. of Scots. Disco.
Tay.

Chlorosplenium.

C. aeruginosum (Oeder.), de Not.

Common, especially on oak, but occuring on alder, ash,
and elm. Rev. of Scots. Disco. Tay.

Helotium, Fr.

H. albidum (Rob.), Pat.

Not uncommon about Perth, Stormonfield, and Dunkeld.
On petioles of dead ash leaves.

Var. aesculi, Phill.

Dunkeld, on petioles of horse chesnut.

PI. herbarum (Pers.), Fr.

Common on herb ace us stems. Rev. of Scots. Disco'. Tay.
FP phyllophilum (Desm.), Krast.

Balgarvie. On beech leaves.

H. subtile, Fr.

Kinnoulh On the leaves of cut or fallen branches of Pinus
sylvestris.

H. advenulum, Phill.

Dunkeld. On dead larch leaves.

H. amenti (Batsch) Fuck.

Dunkeld. On fallen willow catkins.

H. sparsum, Bond.

Quarrymill and Kinfauns. On the mid ribs and veins of
dead oak leaves lying in damp places. First British
specimens. Trans. Brit. My cal. Soc. , vol 4, page 317.

H. rh o dole u cum, Fr.

Not uncommon in several old quarries near Perth. On
dead stems of Equisetum arvense.

H. lutesceus (Hedw.), Fr.

Not uncommon near Perth and at Dunkeld. On dead
wood. Rev. of Scots. Disco. Tay.

1 8 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

H. phyllogenon, Rehm.

Darry Island and Inver. On ribs and veins of poplar leaves.
H. rhizophilum, Fuck.

Inver, on roots of grasses.

H. fructigenum (Bull.), Fuck.

Common on dead acorns, hazel nuts, and beech mast. Rev.
of Scots. Disco. Tay.

H. pygmaeum (Fr.), Karst.

Balthayock, Glenfarg, and Campsie Linn. On partially
buried wood and twigs of Cytisus scoparius.

H. flexuosum, Mass.

Muirhall, on the outer decayed leaves of the root stock of
Dactylus glomerata.

H. epiphyllum (Pers.) Fr.

Not uncommon about Perth. On dead beech leaves. Rev.
of Scots. Disco. Tay.

H. rubescens, Cr.

Quarrymill, on stumps of beech, ash, and hazel. First
British specimens. Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. , vol. 3, page
281.

H. salicellum (Hazb.), Fr.

Not uncommon near Perth. On dead wood of willow,
elm, and ash. Rev. of Scots. Disco. Tay.

H. cyathoidcum (Bull), Karst

Common everywhere. On dead herbaceous stems. P.L.
Dupplin.

H. u-rticae (Pers.), Karst.

About Perth and Dunkeld. On dead nettle stems.

H. axillaris (Nees), Boud.

P.L. Rannoch, as Phialea.

H. scutula (Pers.), Karst.

Common everywhere. On dead herbaceous stems. Var :
Rudbeckia, Phill. Abundant on dead stems of Rudbeckia
lacinata. Naturalised on the banks of the Tay below Perth.
H. virgultorum (Wahl.), Karst.

Not uncommon on dead twigs and branches. Rev. of
Scots. Disco. Tay.

H. calculus (Sow.), Berk.

Quarrymill, on dead willow.

H. moniliferum (Fuck), Rehm.

Quarrymill, on the cut face of beech stumps with Bispora
moniliodes. P.L. Dupplin.

H. strobilinum (Fr.), Fuck.

Dunkeld, on fir cones.

H. terrigenum, Cook et Phill.

Kinfauns, on dead herbaceous stems and other fragments

JAMES MENZIES ON DISCOMYCETES OF PERTHSHIRE.

19

of vegetation, partially buried or under stones. Scone, on
bare soil under beeches.

H. tetraacosporum, Rea.

Balgarvie, on dead stems of Phalaris. New species.
Trans. Brit. Myool. Soc., vol. 3, page 129.

Stamnaria, Fuck.

S. Equiseti (Hoffm.), Sacc.

Dunkeld (Loch of the Lowes). On dead stems of
Equisetum. Rev. of Scots. Disco. Tay.

Cyathicula, de Not.

C. coronata (Bull.), de Not.

Not uncommon. On dead herbaceous stems. P.L.

C. inflexa (Bolt), Sacc.

Rev. of Scots. Disco, as C. coronata. Variety, inflexa,
Tay.

C. alba (Pat.), Sacc.

Scone, on damp clay soil. First British specimens. Trans,
of the Brit. Myool. Soc, vol. 3, page 289.

Belonidium, de Not.

B. vexatum, de not.

Not infrequent near Perth. On dead stems Dactylus
glomerata.

B. Clarkei, Mass et Crossl.

Kinnoull, Stormontfield, and Falls of Moness. On dead
wood

B. Ierdoni, Cook et Phill.

Not uncommon at Dunkeld and the neighbourhood of
Perth. On the leaves of cut or fallen branches of Scots fir.

Belonium, Sacc.

B. excels! us (Karst), Boud.

Kinfauns, on dead stems of Arundo. Methven Loch, on
rotten stems of Tvpha. Not rare.

B. filisporum (Cook.), Sacc.

Kinnoull. Not infrequent on dead culms and leaves of
Brachypodium sylvaticum.

B. arctii (Phill.), Sacc.

Tay bank at Stormontfield. On dead stems of Arctium
lappa.

Lachnellaceae.

Dasyscypha, Fr.

D. virginea (Batsh), Fuck.

Common everywhere. On dead herbaceous stems and
leaves, etc. P.L.

20 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

U. globuligera, Fuck.

Dunkeld. On dead wood. First British specimens.
Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. , vol. 3, page 230.

D. bicolor (Bull), Fuck.

Murthly. On dead oak wood. C.M. P. L. Dunkeld.

D. crucifera (Phill.), Sacc.

Dunkeld (Loch of the Lowes). On dead twigs of Myrica
gale.

D. laetior, Karst.

Barnhill siding. On dead stems of Rubus ideus.

D. scintillans, Mass.

Balgarvie Den. On oak leaves.

D. ciliaris (Schrad.), Sacc.

Dunkeld and Kinnoull. On oak leaves.

D. patula (Pers.), Sacc.

The Hermitage, Dunkeld. On oak leaves.

D. acuum (Alb. ec Schw.), Sacc.

Perth and Dunkeld. On the leaves of cut or fallen branches
of Pinus sylvestris.

D. perplexa, Bond.

Muirhall. On roots of Dactylis glomerata. Killed by
drought the previous summer. First British specimens.
Trans. Brit. Mvcol. Soc., vol. 4, page 197.

D. rhytismatis (Phill.), Sacc.

Kiinfauns. On dead leaves of Acer with Rhytismatis
acerinum.

D. cerina (Pers.), Fuck.

Dunkeld, Falls of Moness, Stormontfield , and Kinnoull.
On dead wood. Rev. of Scots. Disco. Tay.

D. calyculceformis (Schum.), Rehm.

Falls of Moness and Inver. On dead branches of hazel.

D. fuscesens (Pers.), Rehm.

Dunkeld and Scone. On dead oak leaves.

D. clandcstina (Bull), Fuck.

Frequent on dead stems of Rubus and herbaceous stems of
various kinds. Rev. of Scots. Disco. Tay.

D. patens (Fr.), Sacc.

Parkheld and Muirhall. On dead stems of Deschampsia
caespitosa.

D. campylotrichi, A. L. Sm.

BaKarvie. On dead stems of Carduus arvensis. New

o

species. Trans of Brit. Mycol. Soc, vol. 3, page 112.

Erlnei.i.a, Sacc.

E. apala (B. et Br.), Sacc.

Frequent on dead wet rushes. P.L.

JAMES MENZIES ON DISCOMYCETES OF PERTHSHIRE.

2 1

Lachnella, Fr.

L. sulphurea (Pers.), Quell.

P.L. Dupplin.

L. corticalis (Pers.), Fr.

Rev. of Scots. Disco. Tay.

L. canescens (Phill.), Cook.

Quarrymill. On dead wood.

L. spadicea (Pers.), Phill.

Muirhall and Scone. On cut stems of Cytisus scoparius.
L. siparia (B. et Br.), Phill.

Kinnoull, Stormontfield, and Craighall. On dead elm wood.
L. midulus (Schm. et Kunze.), Quell.

Quarrymill, Balgarvie, and Falls of Momess. On dead
stems of meadow sweet and Epolibium hirsutum.

L. albo-testacea (Desm.), Quell.

Muirhall and Balgarvie. On dead stems of Phalaris and
Dacytilis.

L. prasina, Quell.

Balgarvie. On dead stems of Phalaris.

L. Nylanderi (Rohm.), Boud.

Several spots near Perth and at Little Dunkeld. On dead
nettle stems.

■*

L. setulosa (Mass, et Crossk), Boud.

Muirhall of Scone and Inver. On dead stems of Calluna.

L. leucophsea (Pers.), Boud.

Not uncommon near Perth. On dead herbaceous stems.

Trichoscypha, Boud.

T. calycina (Schum.), Boud.

Common on larch bark and twig's.

T. subtillissima (Cook), Boud.

Common on bark of Pinus sylvestris and Abies pectinata.
T. resinaria (Phill.), Bond.

Inver. On resin exuding- from larch wood.

Arachnopeziza.

A. aurelia (Pers.), Fuck.

Kinnoull on oak leaves. Rev. of Scots. Disco. Tay.
Haloscypha, Boud.

H. hyalina, (Pers.), Boud.

Common on dead wood and bark. Rev. of Scots. Disco.
Tay.

Micropodia, Boud.

M. chrysostigma (Fr.), Boud.

Dunkeld and Perth. Not uncommon. On dead stems of
Pteris.

2 2 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

M. dumorum (Desm.), Boud.

Not uncommon near Perth. On dead bramble leaves.

M. grisella (Rehm.), Boud.

Inver. On dead leaves of Pteris.

M. aspidiicola (B. et Br.), Boud.

Rev. of Scots. Disco. Tay.

Urceolella, Boud.

U. deparcula (Karst.), Boud.

Balgarvie and Quarrymill. On dead stems of the meadow
sweet.

U. effugiens (Desm.), Boud.

Kinfauns. On dead herbaceous stems in damp shady
spots.

U. versicolor (Desm.), Boud.

Dunkeld. On dead stems of Pteris.

U. spirotricha (Oud.), Boud.

Balgarvie and banks of the Tay below Perth. On dead
stems of Heracleum.

U. Berkeley! (Blox.), Boud.

Not infrequent near Perth. On dead stems of Heracleum.
U. leuconica (Cook.), Boud.

About Perth and Dunkeld. On dead stems of Calluna.

U. stereicola (Cook.), Boud.

Kinnoull. On dead Stereum hirsutum.

U. melaxantha (Fr.), Boud.

Inver. On dead beech branches.

Trichopeziza.

T. Grevillei (Berk.), Sacc.

Cromwell Park. On dead Umbellifer stems. Rev. of
Scots. Disco. Tay.

T. carinata, Cook et Mass.

Dunkeld. On dead stems of Felix mas.

T. flavo-fulginea (Alb. et Schwein.), Sacc.

Quarrymill. On stumps of Ulmus mon-tana. First
British specimens. Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. , vol. 3, page
288.

Moll isiaceae.

Pyrenopeziza, Fuck.

P. Mercurialis (Fuck.), Boud.

Almond mouth. On dead stems of Mercury.

P. arundinacea (D.C.), Boud

On dead culms of Arurido. Rev. of Scots. Disco. Tay.

JAMES MENZIES ON DfSCOMYCETES OF PERTHSHIRE.

23

P. digitalina (Phill. ) , Sacc.

Inver. On dead stems of the foxglove.

P. Carduorum, Rehm.

Quarrvmill. On dead stems of Carduus palustris.

P. Rubi (Fr.), Rehm.

On dead raspberry canes. Common. Rev. of Scots.
Disco. Tay.

P. uirticticola (Phill.), Bond.

Dunkeld and near Perth. On dead nettle stems.

Epiielina, Sacc.

E. Rhinanthi (Phill.), Sacc.

Rev. of Scots. Disco. Tay.

Pirott^ea, Sacc.

P. veneta, Sacc et Speg.

Cromwell Park, Almond mouth, and Balgarvie. On dead
stems of Heracleum and Articium lappa.

Mollisia, Fr.

M. fallax (Desm.), Gill.

About Perth and Dunkeld. Not uncommon. On bark
of Pinus sylvestris.

M. benesuada (Tub), Phill.

Inver. Tay side below Perth cn alder sticks and branches.
M. aquosa (B. et Br.), Phill.

Kinfauns and Muirhall. On dead willow branches.

M. cinerea (Batsh.), Karst. Common on dead wood. P.L.

M. caesia (Fuck), Sacc.

Inver and Kinnoull. Often growing in the shattered ends
of fallen oak branches.

M. conigena (Pers.), Boud.

Dunkeld. On fir cones.

M. ventosa, Karst.

Lochearnhead, Glenfarg, Cromwell Park, and Quarrymill.
On dead wood of oak and alder.

M. atrata (Pers.), Karst.

Very common on dead stems of the meadow sweet. Rev.
of Scots. Disco. Tay.

Tapesia, Fuck.

T. fusca (Pers.), Fuck.

Very com moo on dead wood. P.L.

T. Rosae (Pers.), Fuck.

Very common on dead stems of wild roses. Rev. of Soots.
Disco. Tay.

24 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

T. mutablis (B. et Br.), Phill.

Muirhall. On dead culms and leaves of Deschampsia
ccespitose.

Niptera, Fr.

N. pulla (Phill. et Keith.), Boud.

Balgarvie and Kinfauns. * On dead culms of Phalaris
and Arundo.

Mollisiella, Boud.

M. Teucrii (Fuck.), Boud.

Kinnoull, On dead stems of Teucrium scorodonia.

Potellariaceae.

Heterosph^eria, Grev.

H. patella (Tode.), Grev.

Not uncommon. On dead stems of the Angelica sylvestris.
Rev. of Scots. Disco. Tav.

Psel dophacidium, Karst.

P. Callunae, Karst.

Dunkeld. On dead stems of heather. Trans Brit. Mycol.
Soc. , vol. 3, page 40.

Lager hetma, Sacc.

L. sphaerospora Berk, et Cook.), Sacc.

Dunkeld. On dead wood.

Karschia, Korb.

K. lignyota (Fr.), Sacc.

Stormontfield, Quarrymili, and Dunkeld. On oak sticks
blackened bv other fungi.

Durella, Tul.

D. lecideola (Fr.), Rehm.

Kinfauns. On dead wood of birch and g'oat willow. P.L.
Killicrankie.

D. livida (B. et Br.), Sacc.

Inver. On dead wood of Pinus slvvestris.

J

Lecanidion, Rabenh.

L. atratum (Hedw.), Rabenh.

P.L. Rannoch.

Scltularia, Karst.

S. citrina (Chev.), Sacc.

Scone, Kinnoull, and Dunkeld. On cones and bark of
Pinus slyvestris.

JAMES MENZIES ON D1SCOMYCETES OF PERTHSHIRE.

25

Biatorella, de Not.

Tromera, Massal.

B. resinae (Fr.), Mudci.

Inver. On fir wood.

Dermateaceae.

Velutaria, Fuck.

V. rufo’-olivacea (Alb. et Schw.), Fuck.

Dunkeld, on dead branches of bird cherry. Glenfarg, on
stems of wild rose.

Pezicula, Tul.

P. amaema, Tul.

Inver. On scorched oak bark.

P. rhabarbina (Berk.), Tul.

Not uncommon about Dunkeld and Perth. On dead stems
of wild roses and bramble. Rev. of Scots. Disco. Tay.

P. eucrita, Karst.

Kinfauns, Scone, and Inver. On chips of bark pf the
Scots fir lying- on the ground as they had fallen from the
axe in tree felling.

Dermatea, Fr.

D. Cerasi (Pers.), de Not.

Rev. of Scots. Disco. Tay.

D. umbrina, Cook et Mass.

Muir hall and Glenfarg. On dead branches of Ulex.

D. Houghtoni, Phill.

The Hermitage, Dunkeld. On dead branches of Prunus
laurocerasus.

Cenanguim, Fr.

C. pulveraceum (Alb. et Schw.), Fr.

Dunkeld and Kinnoull. On sloe and birch.

C. Sarothamui, Fuck.

Inver. On cut branches of broom lying on the ground.

C. subnitidum, Cook et Phill.

Kinnoull and Inver. On dead wood of Pyrus aucuparia.
C. Abictis (Pers..), Duby.

Not uncommon near Perth. On cut or fallen branches of
Pinus sylvestris.

Encoelia, Fr.

E. furfuracea (Roth), Karst.

Dunkeld. On dead alder. Rev. of Scots. Disco. Tay.

E. populnea (Pers.), Schroet.

Dunkeld. On dead ash sticks.

26 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

E. tiliacea (Fr.), Karst.

Dunkeld. On dead branches of lime. First British
specimens. Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. , Vol. 4, page 317.

Tympanis, Tode.

T. conspersa, Fr.

Dunkeld. On dead branches of Pyrus aucuparia. Rev.
of Scots. Disco. Tav.

T. alnea (Pers.), Fr.

Dunkeld. On dead alder. Rev. of Scots. Disco. Tay.

Cenangella, Sacc.

C. Pinastri (Tul.), Sacc.

Dunkeld. On dead fir and spruce.

SCLERODERRIS, Fr.

S. ribesia (Pers.), Karst.

Dunkeld and Barnhill. On dead wood of Ribes rubrum.

S. bacillifera (Karst), Sacc.

Dunkeld. On dead wood of Abies excelsa. First British
specimens. Trans, of Brit. Mycol. Soc., Yol. 2, page 169.

Trochila, Fr.

T. craterium (DC.), Fr.

Not uncommon on the underside of dead ivy leaves. P.L.
T. Laurocerasus (Desm), Fr.

Common on the underside of the dead leaves of Cherry
laurel. P.L.

L. Buxi Capron.

P.L. Dupplin. ' On dead box leaves.

Stictidaceae.

Propolis, Fr.

P. faginea fSchrad), Karst.

Dunkeld and near Perth. Not uncommon on dead wood.
P. rhodoleuca (Somm.), Fr.

Dunkeld. On dead cones of Pinus sylvestris.

Stictis.

S. radiata (Linn.), Pers.

Rev. of Scots. Disco. Tav.

Phacidiaceae.

Phacidium, Fr.

P. vaccinii, Fr.

P.L. Rannoch.

JAMES MENZIES ON DISCOMYCETES OF PERTHSHIRE.

27

P. abietinum, Kunze et Schm.

Not uncommon about Perth and Dunkeld. On the leaves
of fallen branches of Scots fir.

Keithia, Sacc.

K. tetraspora (Phill.), Sacc.

Dunkeld. On living leaves of juniper.

Pseudopeziza.

P. Trifolii (Bw-Bern.), Fuck.

P.L. Gannochy.

P. Ranunculi (Wallr.), Fuck.

P.L. Dupplin and Rannoch.

P. repanda (Fr.), Karst.

P.L. Kinfauns.

P. Sphaeroides (Pers.), Fuck.

Var. Lychnidis, Phill. Tay bank, near Almond mouth.
On dead stems of Lychnis diurna.

P. petiolaris (Alb. et Schw.), Mass.

Dunkeld. On the petioles of dead Acer leaves.

S.

Stegia, Fr.

Iilicis, Fr.

Not uncommon on dead holly leaves.

P.L.

Schizothyrium, Desm.

S. Ptarmica, Desm.

P.L. Rannoch.

Coccomyces, de Not.

C. coronatus (Schum), de Not.

. P.L. Rannoch.

C. dentatus (Kunze et Schm.), Sacc.

P.L. Killiecrankie.

C. Pini (Alb. et Schw.), Karst.

Dunkeld. On twigs and branches of Scots fir.

Colpoma, Wallr.

C. quercinum (Pers.), Wallr.

Dunkeld, Scone, and Stormontfield. P.L. Kenmore and
Rannoch. On dead oak twigs.

Rhytisma, Fr.

R. acerinum (Pers.), Fr.

Very common. P.L.

R. salicinum (Pers.), Fr.

P.L. Strathbraan.

R. Empetri, White.

P.L. Breadalbane, Rannoch, and Athol.

28 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

III. — The Caledonian Camp , The Haer Cairns , and The Steed Stalls,

in the Stormont.

By Alex. M. Scott.

(Read nth April, 1919.)

During- an enforced holiday in the Stormont district in the
summer of last year I had leisure, with favourable weather, to take
rambles into- certain unfrequented parts, and the following- notes
having reference to- some of the objects visited I have gathered
together in the hope they may prove, if not instructive, at least
interesting, to those who are not already acquainted with that
part of our county.

The little strath of the Stormont is situated between Blairgowrie
and Dunkeld, and is about six miles in length. In appearance, it
is exceedingly picturesque. The chain of lochs, connected by the
Lunan Burn, running along its centre, beginning from the west
with the Loch of the Lowes, Butter stone, Clunie, Marlee, and
Ardblair, gives an entrancing diversity to the landscape ; the
arable land in most parts bears good crops ; the stretches of woods
and pasture here and there lend a pleasing variety to the eye, while
from the rising hills which afford a protection from the north a
wide prospect of the Valley of Strathmore is obtained.

Parts of the district have been familiar to me for some years,
and certain objects of interest 1 have formerly noticed in my
rambles, though only by a cursory glance. During my last visit,
however, having more leisure, I devoted some time to- make closer
investigations, particularly of those pre-historic remains which
are to be found in various parts of the locality. The principal
objects I shall here mention, however, are the supposed Caledonian
Camp, with the Haer Cairns, on the Lornty Burn, and the Steed
Stalls, which are situated on the Hill of Gourdie about two and a
half miles farther south. Many conjectures have arisen regarding
these three objects, particularly the Steed Stalls, but nothing
definite has been arrived at by those capable of deciding. It is
evident, however, they are of great antiquity, and in all likelihood
have had originally a connection each with the other.

In order, therefore, to trace out the connection we shall first
of all make ourselves acquainted with the Caledonian Camp, as
it is termed.

CALEDONIAN CAMP.

Taking the course of our journey from Blairgowrie in the
direction of Dunkeld, on arriving at Marlee Hotel, about three

ALEX. M. SCOTT ON NOTES ON THE CALEDONIAN CAMP.

29

miles distant, we leave the highway and follow7 a hilly road to the
right, and after half an hour’s walking we arrive at the Lornty
Burn. Crossing the Burn at the Bridge of Drumaud, we here leave
behind us the good macadamised road and enter upon an old hill
road, which 1 understand eventually leads one to the Bridge of
Cally. To the right, about half a mile distant, is discerned the
ruins of the old Castle of Glasclune perched on the brink of a ravine.
Up to this point the most of the land is in a good state of cultiva¬
tion, but after crossing the bridge we come to the farm of
Middleton, which is now' entirely turned into pasturage, while the
farm steading is completely ruinous. I might remark here in
passing that the view from the road we have followed, looking
westward, gives one a very fine prospect of these hilly ridges
rising' alternately which mark the peculiar configuration of the
ground in this part of the district. These ridges, or drums , as
they are termed, come stretching down from the high ground of
the old Forest of Cluny, rising one above the other with striking
uniformity. In the low ground between two of these ridges flows
the Lornty Burn, which has its source from Loch Benachally and
continues on its way twisting and turning till it enters the Ericht
some distance above Blairgowrie. At the old farm of Middleton
we leave the road behind and take our course Westward, following
a sheep track along one of these ridges for fully half-a-mile, having
good walking ground over old pasture till we enter upon a part
which apparently has never been cultivated and is sparsely covered
with heather. .The sheep track, however, can still be followed ,
and after another half mile’s walk we come in sight of the old
earthen dyke or vallum which marks the western extremity of the
supposed Caledonian Camp. The eastern wall, which bordered
on land once cultivated, has been levelled by time and the hand of
man, and I had traversed nearly the whole breadth of the camp
before I was aware. The extent of the camp is supposed to have
been about a square mile. On the north side in the hollow to> the
right of the ridge I had traversed are here and there indications
of an earthen wall, but it does not at any part give assurance to
the observer as to- its having been used as a means of defence. The
earthen walls of the camp are termed the Buzzard Dykes , while the
central parts or ridq'es are known locallv as the Garrv Drums. From
the ridge I had followed is obtained a fair idea of the size and shape
of the camp. It occupies two- of those hilly ridges, the north side
resting in a hollow, while it extends in the form of a square south¬
wards to> the Lornty Burn, on the southern bank of which is still
to be traced distinctly its extreme fosse and breastwork. On the
open part of the ground the western rampart still stands conspicuous
at some parts about six or eight feet from the bottom of a ditch or
trench which has been formed inside, and one can walk with perfect

30 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

freedom along the summit of the wall. The breadth of the wall
at its base will be fully six feet. I walked upon it from its northern
limit till where, on the second ridge, it enters a fir wood. Time
did not permit me to follow it to its southern extremity, but an open
glade has been left in the wood running parellel with it till it ends
at the brink of the Lornty Burn. In the wood the earthen wall
is only about three feet in height ; the ditch inside is still continued.
This wall or rampart must have caused considerable labour to
form ; it is composed of earth and stones, and when entire must have
afforded a strong protection. The ditch which runs inside is about
two feet deep in parts. One is at a ioss to account for the ditch
being inside the wall, but probably, it might be presumed, the camp
was formed not definitely for a place of defence, from a military
point of view, but more as a protection to the families of the Cale¬
donian army, the women and children, with their cattle and horses,
and the ditch may have been intended to prevent the animals
approaching- the wall to destroy or attempt to cross over it.

Within the camp, particularly towards the west end on the second
ridge, numerous cairns are to be found. They are dotted all over
the slopes, and, on account of the heather having been burned in
the preceding spring, at the time of my visit were plainly visible.
On the outside of the ramparts also^ you find a number of them,
but in this part the heather was rank in growth and no doubt hid
many of them from sight. According to local writers similar
cairns are met with even as far west as Benachallv, a distance of
two miles. There is little reason to doubt these cairns are
sepulchral, althoug'h there is no evidence that any of them have
been opened at any time.

About two hundred yards to the west of the vallum are to be
found the remains of several hut circles, generally in pairs, while
a little further to< the north-west and occupying higher ground
among the heather are other two, composed of larger stones and
complete in formation. Another circle is also situated inside the
camp ground within the wood. These circles vary in demensions,
their exterior diameter being from thirty-four to> over forty-two
feet. The circle within the wood is the largest of the number, the
outside diameter being sixtv-seven feet.

This ancient camping ground is about seven miles from Dunkeld,
which was one of the principal seats of the Caledonians, and its
situation lends it favourably to the idea that it formed the centre
of the army of Galgacus or Galdus, which occupied the heights,
while watching and preparing for an onslaught on the Roman
invaders who hgd .advanced in this direction the length of Meikleour
and Del vine. The position is assuredly a very strong one, and
favourably situated for attack or defence. The right wing of the
Caledonians is supposed to have rested on the more level ground

ALEX. M. SCOTT ON NOTES ON THE C ALEDONIAN CAMP. 3 1

between this and Benachally, while their left occupied an equally
commanding’ position over above Marlee, and the front would be
naturally defended by the Lochs of Clunie and Marlee, the ground
between the lochs and eastward of Marlee, in particular, affording
suitable advantage for the movements of their cavalry. How long
this ground may have been occupied is open to> conjecture, but a
large army could have lain here with perfect freedom for a con¬
siderable time, if supplies of food were obtainable. Water would
be plentiful, as there are traces of two watercourses within the
camp, besides the Lornty Burn itself which at this part is about
twelve feet wide.

Although I have no intention in the present instance to enter
upon debatable ground regarding the site of the great battle of
Moms Grampius, as it is termed, a subject which has occupied the
attention of many learned men who have made the Roman occupa¬
tion of Britain their peculiar study, one cannot refrain, when visit¬
ing this part of the country, of viewing with some favour that it
was here the great conflict took place. The site of the battle has
been claimed for Fifeshire by some, as being near to the sea-board,
and evidences are not awanting that much fighting between the
Romans and the ancient Britons had taken place in that county.
Forfarshire also has put in a strong claim, with like evidences to
bear out its assumptions, it has been generally accepted that the
Muir of Ardoch or adjoining ground was the actual site of the
battle, but according to what may be gathered from those who
have studied the subject, in no other parts of the country are
found SO' many of those cairns and tumuli as are met with in the
Stormont district. Its distance from the seaboard may put a check
on accepting a decision in its favour ; but the adventurous Romans
did not merely keep along the shores of the island ; they penetrated
deeply into the open country, while having at the same time their
carefully placed lines of communication to> their camps. They
avoided the wild mountainous parts, however, and kept to the more
favourable plains. General Roy in his valuable volume on the
Roman occupation remarks on the great battle as follows :
“ Already 30,000 men in arms (Caledonians) encamped on the face
of the Grampian Mountains under the command of Galgacus. . . .
In this situation of affairs Agricola sent forward his fleet with
orders to' make descents in different places along the coast, and by
devastation and ravage to harass and distract the enemy. In the
meantime he put himself at the head of the army, which he had
reinforced with some of the bravest Britons, and marching without
his heavy baggage he arrived at the Grampian Mountains. The
British host was drawn up on the hills in the most advantageous
manner, SO' as to make at once a mighty great show, and a very
terrible appearance. The first ranks stood upon the plain, the

32 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

others rising successively behind them, one above another, as if
linked together, till the brow of the hill was covered. Their
cavalry and war chariots occupied the plain before the foot, with
great tumult and many movements to and fro.”

The formation of this district of the Stormont lends itself there¬
fore most favourably as being the site of this momentous conflict,
the high g'rounds providing a position for the Caledonians to
compare with the words just quoted, the sloping ridges and the
plains below affording suitable ground for the evolutions of the
cavalry and war chariots. The vestiges that remain to-day
scattered over a wide area testify most forcibly that at all events
a conflict of great magnitude — call it Mons Grampius, if you may —
here took place. According to Tacitus, the Roman historian,
30,000 Caledonians were engaged that day in battle; at the close
10,000 were numbered with the dead. The figures, of course,
may be accepted with caution : likewise the eloquent speeches which
he puts in the mouths of the opposing leaders in addressing their
respective followers. The speech by Agricola might with fairness
be assured ,as reliable ; the patriotic and soul-stirring address which
he ascribes to Galgacus is altogether composed of language which
one would never dare expect from a rude and unlettered barbarian,
and is one which entirely outclasses anything coming from a
general of more modern times.

THE HAER CAIRNS.

Crossing the stream of the Lornty we come now7 to the Muir of
Gormack, where a considerable number of these burial cairns are
to be seen, similar in appearance to w7hat we find within the
camp itself. The name “ Haer ” or “ Heer ” Cairns, signifying
“ cairns of battle,” is common in several parts of Scotland. These
cairns are ascribed to' be burial places of those fallen in conflict.
On my first visit to the Muir of Gormack several years ago, it was
much overgrown with broom, but on my visit last year the broom
had disappeared, and a distinct view of the cairns could be obtained.
They occupy an area of several acres in extent. At certain parts
they are widely placed, but at other parts you find them in clusters,
as it were, and being in some instances only about a yard apart.
Truly, if these cairns mark the last resting place of the fallen in
battle, the conflict at this point must have been very severe. In
all probability, the camp being the centre of the Caledonian army,
the defence here would be stoutest, and viewing these vestiges that
still remain of the great battle for freedom which took place here
over eighteen hundred years ago, no Scotsman could but feel moved
with emotion and patriotic pride when he recalls to mind those
stirring times :

33

ALEX. M. SCOTT ON NOTES ON THE CALEDONIAN CAMP.

. V

' . .1 • t ■ \

“ When the Romans endeavoured our country to gain,

But our ancestors fought, and they fought not in vain.”

These cairns are comparatively all about the same size, measur¬
ing about eight or nine yards in circumference, and exposed about
twelve or eighteen inches above the surface of the ground. They
are composed of stones varying in size heaped together. The moist
of them during the past ages have lain undisturbed, with the ex¬
ception of that part of the Muir on the south side where the ground
has been broken up of late years during the course of the laying
of the water supply from Loch Benachally to Blairgowrie. The
first line of pipes was laid down in 1870, but in 1893, the supply
of water being insufficient for the increasing population, a second
installation was made. You can distinguish where the water
track is laid by some of the cairns having been broken up. I
have been unable to learn if any objects of burial were unearthed.
Stones in the form of boulder slabs have apparently been turned up
during the operation, as they appear to have previously lain, in the
earth.

At the1 western extremity of the Muir the Lornty Burn after
winding its way from Loch Benachally here takes an abrupt bend,
and descends into' a gorge, which is continued for most of its course
till it enters the Ericht. At the bend indicated the ground on the
south side is precipitous, rising to about 40 feet in height. At the
edge of this high bank you enter what appears at first sight to be a
narrow footpath, but on taking a few steps further you enter a deep
ditch or trench that runs in a line with the top of the bank, which
here slopes down abruptly towards the stream. One might imagine
it at first to be a sheep track worn down thus through the course
of time, but in tracing it throughout you Gome to the conclusion
that iit is more than an ordinary track made by the feet of animals.
That it is of artificial construction is quite obvious ; and it resembles
much the same formation of the bank and ditch you find within the
wood in the camp ground. A slight ridge is observed along the top
of the bank when you are standing on the level Muir, but the trench
is not easily discerned on account of an overgrowth of high bracken
which stretches along the slopes. It is only when you descend
into the hollow, you discover its true depth and uniform formation.
This trench is continued along the top of the bank broken at two
parts by large gaps, probably obliterated by time. The western
portion of the trench is the most perfect, being about 300 yards in
length, with what appears to be, at short intervals, outlets to the
Muir about two> feet in breadth. Standing in this trench, the
breastwork is about six' feet in height, while the ridge behind is
about two feet. From its construction and position it is quite
apparent this trench must have formed the southern part of the old
Caledonian Camp,
c

34 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

Along the Muir a few yards in front of the entrenchment are
to be found groups of hut circles similar to these met with to the
west of the camp, and already referred to. At this point they
appear to have been more numerous. At present these are ten
in number, but more may have been displaced. Apparently they
have been set down regularly along the Muir. They are all
much about the same diameter, are formed of stones standing
mostly a few inches above the level of the ground and about a foot
apart. The ground within the circles is level, or, in instances,
slightly hollow. You find in one place a solitary' circle, and at
other places there are two or more side by side about a foot apart.
The circles are mostly complete, only I observed on the south side
of each a gap about a yard wide, which might indicate that these
hutments or tent dwellings had their openings all in that direction.

I have inferred by my remarks these stone circles mark the sites
of huts or dwelling-places. Similar circles are to be found in
various parts of the country and are ascribed to such an origin.
They display no sign of building, and are quite distinct from the
burial cairns which are usually heaps of stones or mounds of earth.
These ancient huts probably would be formed principally of timber,
the most part branches and wattles, the circle of stones outside
acting, it may be, as a protection or support to the rude timber
foundations.

There are a number of large boulders to be seen on various parts
of the Muir, and on my last visit to the place I examined several
of them and discovered one lying near to the south side and a few
yards distant from the track of the water supply, on which could
be distinctly traced eight cup-marks. The boulder is about six feet
in length, two* in height, and two in breadth. One half of the
surface is rough and broken, but the other half is smoother, show¬
ing the cups distinctly.

I have never seen mention made of any cup-marked stones on
the Muir ; if a careful investigation were made of the rest of the
boulders other like pre-historic vestiges might be found.

Although it might be inferred from the presence of the hu<
circles and cup-marked .stone this part of the country may have
been a native settlement anterior to the Roman invasion, the position
of the camping ground with its protecting vallum impresses the
mind with the idea that the army of Galgacus could not have found
in the county a more favourable position for defence, and the
traditions that cling around it and the neighbourhood most pointedly
assert that the Stormont was the scene of the momentous battle
of long passed ages.

THE STEED STALLS.

The peculiar mounds of earth situated on one of the fields of the
farm of the Hillocks of Gourdie, and known in the district by the

ALEX. M. SCOTT ON NOTES ON THE CALEDONIAN CAMP.

35

name of the “ Steed Sta’s ” have long occupied the attention of
the archaeologist, and various surmises have been the outcome as
to their origin. Of their antiquity there is no doubt whatever,
and that they are coeval and connected in a way with the Caledonian
Camp we have been dealing with is very apparent. The “ Stalls”
are to be seen in a field which slopes slightly upwards and at its
highest point overlooks the valley or the Haughs of Delvine. They
are about two* and a half miles due south from the Muir of Gormack,
and about the same distance from the Roman Camp at Inchtuthil
and Meikleour. The Rev. William M‘ Ritchie, writing in 1793
describes them as consisting of “ eight mounds with eight corres¬
ponding trenches,” “ perhaps some more,” he says, “ have been
obliterated with the plough. The mounds and trenches are of
equal length, alternate and parallel. At the south end of each
trench, or fosse, there is a circular concave, the centre of which
lies in the line of the fosse, and to this circular cavity the fosse
seems to have formed the entrance.” Thus were they described
in 1793, and at the present day the Stalls still present much the same
appearance ; the ridges are the same in number although they are
unequal in some parts, having suffered much from the straying
cattle and horses while pasturing in the field. The circular
cavities referred toby Mr. M‘Ritchie have lost much of their forma¬
tion, and have become merely sloping banks. The ridges are still
of equal length, measuring about twenty short paces, and the
height of the highest one will be about eight feet, and at the base
fully two' yards in breadth. Originally these mounds would ap¬
parently be equal in. height and breadth, while the fosse or french
which runs between each would be about two feet in breadth.
Evidently these mounds were not hastily thrown up in the course
of their construction, but have been formed according to a plan or
design. , They are composed mostly of earth, though there are
stones mixed in the earth. Along the southern end of the trenches
on the bank a slight ridge is perceptible, although such may have
been formed through the process of agriculture. I asked the
present tenant of the farm during the course of a conversation if
any articles of antiquity had ever been discovered around the
mounds or in the field itself, but he was not aware of anything
having ever been found.

That these mounds are artificial is undoubted, but whether they
be sepulchral or otherwise can only be conjectured. James Knox,
in his “ Topography of the Basin of the Tay ” ascribes them with
seeming confidence to be the burial mounds of the Tungrian and
Batavian cohorts slain in the battle of Mons Grampius, and various
•writers follow him in his surmises. The peculiar construction of
the mounds does not lend itself very favourably to> my mind that
they are burial places, nor do you usually find traces of Roman

36 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

burial represented by mounds of earth or heaps of stones.
The ancient Caledonians marked their burial-places by stone
cairns or mounds of earth irregular and apart, but these mounds
or stalls give one the idea they were formed for other
purposes than burial mounds. What then was their purpose?
The Rev. Mr. M‘ Ritchie writes thus : “ It is said that an advance
guard of the Caledonian army was placed here to watch the motions
of the Romans when they lay encamped at Inchtuthil, about two
miles to the southward on the plain below. The place of the
Steed Stalls seems to be well calculated for such a purpose.” One
is inclined to believe this Idea of Mr. M‘ Ritchie was quite consistent.
From the Steed Stalls looking northwrard you command a view of
the high ground, the Muir of Gormack being clearly recognised,
and easy communication could be maintained by the light cavalry
of the Caledonians conveying intelligence to the camp of the move¬
ments of the enemy below. By advancing about fifty yards south¬
wards from the Stalls, you come to an elevation which affords you
an unobstructed view of the plain of Delvine. This then would
prove a strong vantage ground for the Caledonians.

After viewing the ground, and the situation of these Stalls, I
am of the same opinion expressed by the Rev. Mr. M‘ Ritchie,
that they formed an outpost of the ancient Caledonian, and may be
termed according to modern warfare as “ dug-outs ” or shelters
for scouting parties, and thus literally may have been stalls for the
ponies as well as cover for the warriors themselves. Branches of
trees could have been laid over the tops of the ridges, and covered
with heath, and thus would be formed not only a shelter from the
elements, but would supply as well a “ camouflaged ” place of
concealment from the opposing Roman scouts.

It is not unlikely that the great conflict commenced near here,
although the Romans, after securing the advantage, would pro¬
bably advance over the more open ground to the west and east of
Marlee. After suffering reverse on the plains below, the Caledonians
fell back upon their main position on the heights, which were
ultimately stormed by the enemy, who overran the camp, and as
evidences at various points testify, carried the pursuit north-east
for some miles distant. Various articles have been discovered
which had belonged to the invader. The “ Statistical Accounts
make mention of several Roman urns and Roman spurs having*
been dug up on a hill still named Craig Roman, above Marlee,
while elsewhere in the supposed line of pursuit other articles have
been discovered.

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VOLUME VIE
Part II. — 1919-20.

PERTH:

PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY,

AT THE PERTHSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM.

GEORGE F. BATES ON ANOMALIES OF PLANT STRUCTURE. 3 ?

IV. — Anomalies of Plant Structure.

By George F. Bates, B.A., B.Sc.

(Read 14th November, 1919.)

Part I.

#

When we examine, by means of suitable sections, the internal
structure of the vegetative organs of ordinary flowering plants,
we find that although minor differences exist, yet on the whole the
members of the two great groups — Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons —
show a remarkable degree of similarity and conformity to type, so that
the student of plant anatomy can obtain a very good idea of general
structure by the detailed study of comparatively few forms. If, however,
we pursue our investigations further, we find that there are large
numbers of plants which show remarkable divergences from the normal
type of structure.

These anomalies are in many cases closely connected with the
habitat of the plants in which they occur, and may be regarded as
adaptations to environment ; for example, plants growing in dry
situations require to economise water, plants growing in water have
little need of water-conducting tissues, and in both cases the structure
is modified accordingly, often to an extreme degree. In this connection
it may be convenient to note the arrangement whereby plants may be
placed in three great groups, quite distinct from the usual classification
into Natural Orders, etc. These groups are (a) Mesophytes , plants
growing in ordinary situations, neither excessively wet nor excessively
dry ; (b) Hydrophytes , plants growing in water or in excessively wet
places ; and (c) Xerophytes , the plants of dry situations. (It is not
absolutely accurate, however, to say that all plants growing in wet
situations are hydrophytes. A place may be physically wet but
physiologically dry, that is, abundance of water may be present, but the
plants growing there may not be able to use it. This is the case with
plants growing in salt marshes, e.g.. on the marshy shores of estuaries
affected by the tide. The salt in the water prevents it from being
utilised by the plants, which often exhibit marked xerophytic characters,
and are known as halophytes. Similarly, low temperature may cause
physiological dryness, even in the presence of abundant fresh water, and
this is one reason why Alpine plants are often xerophytic.)

In addition to the above we may recognise another great group

D

38 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

of plants, based on habit of growth and not on habitat, the
climbing plants.

For the purpose we have in view it is necessary to point out that
the anomalies to be discussed consist largely of variations in the amount
of the hard and soft tissues of which plant organs are built up, and in
their relative arrangement. A brief explanation of the methods by
which these tissues may be recognised in sections is consequently called
for. The fundamental structural material of all the higher plants, and
of which all young cell-walls are composed, is cellulose, a substance
allied in composition to starch, but with somewhat different properties.
In many cells this material remains essentially unaltered during the
whole existence of the cell, and as a general rule in these cases, the cell-
wall remains quite thin, and the tissue composed of these cells remains
soft. On the other hand, if the cell is destined to form part of a hard
tissue, the cell-wall is thickened and the cellulose modified into a
kindred substance, lignin, which has somewhat different properties from
the original cellulose. Such cells or tissues are said to be lignified.
As examples of cellulose structures we may mention pith, cortex, and
soft bast ; while wood and hard bast are examples of lignified tissues.
The difference in thickness of the walls of the various elements of the
different tissues renders them easily recognisable under the microscope^
but in addition we have valuable means of distinguishing between them
by the action of suitable chemical reagents, or, for permanent prepara¬
tions, in the process of double staining. Thus, by comparatively simple
manipulations we can stain the lignified elements of a section with
the bright red of safranin or eosin, and the non-lignified elements with
the purple of haematoxylin ; and in addition we have a wide choice
of contrasting colours given by other pairs of stains ; so that it becomes
possible, in a properly stained section, to identify lignified and non-
lignified tissues at a glance. Again, the external walls of the surface
layer of herbaceous plants, where exposed to the air, are commonly
modified into cutin, such external layer being then known as the cuticle,
while the modified cell-walls are said to be cuticularised. In woody
dicotyledons, which constitute the vast majority of our trees and shrubs,
an external layer, often of considerable thickness, of a corky nature, is
produced ; the walls of the cells composing this layer become converted
into suberin , and the cells are said to be suberised. Both cutin and
suberin behave in some respects like lignin, but can be recognised by
appropriate chemical tests.

Before proceeding to discuss any actual anomalies, it may be as
well to get some idea of the structure of one or two typical stems.
Take first, as an example of a herbaceous dicotyledon, the stem of a
sunflower. Even without a microscope we can readily make out that it

GEORGE F. BATES ON ANOMALIES OF PLANT STRUCTURE.

39

consists of a number of tough strands, arranged in a cylinder (appearing
as a ring in transverse section) set in a mass of soft tissue, the whole
being enclosed in a thin transparent skin. At the nodes of the stem,
that is, at the points where the leaves spring, it will be found that there
is some branching of the strands, and that they are connected with
strands entering the stem from the leaf, but between the nodes they
run parallel to one another. The outer skin is the epidermis,
cuticularised on its external cell-walls, and the soft material is the
ground tissue, in which three regions may be distinguished — the central
portion, or pith, the outer portion, or cortex, and the parts lying
between each pair of strands, the medullary rays. In older stems it will
be found that the strands tend to unite laterally, forming what looks
like a continuous cylinder, the medullary rays being proportionally
narrowed.

The strands are known as fibro-vascular bundles. By sectioning an
uninjured strand, the detailed structure can readily be made out by
means of the microscope. There are (i) an internal region, the wood,
consisting of lignified tubular members or cells; (2) an extremely
delicate layer of thin-walled cells, rectangular in cross section : this
is the cambium or growing layer, and (3) externally, the bast,
composed in our example of inner soft bast and outer hard bast. In
a section stained with haematoxylin and safranin. the wood and the
hard bast take the safranin (red) and the ground tissue, soft bast, and
cambium the haematoxylin (purple).

The very young twigs of a woody dicotyledon resemble the
sunflower quite closely. At an early stage, however, the wood appears
as an almost continuous ring, with very narrow medullary rays, which
also in many cases become more or less lignified. Commonly about
the end of the first season of growth, the cork layer begins to develop,
often just under the epidermis, but sometimes deeper, and ultimately
everything outside the cork dies and is gradually shed off. Each year
of growth sees the development of a new ring of wood, to the outside of
that already formed. New bast is also formed on the inside of the
older portions, these being crushed and disorganised by the pressure
due to the increasing diameter of the stem. The new wood and bast
are both produced from the cambium, which persist as long as the tree
continues to grow. (The formation of the bark of trees is a complicated
process, into which it is not necessary to enter).

For a typical monocotyledon we may glance briefly at the stem of
the maize or Indian corn. - Like a dicotyledon it shows in cross-section
numerous fibro-vascular bundles embedded in ground tissue, but we
note as peculiarities (1) that the bundles are not arranged in a ring, but
are scattered irregularly throughout the ground-tissue, (2) that while

40 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

each bundle resembles that of a dicotyledon in having bast externally
and wood internally, it differs in the important fact that the cambium is
absent; and (3) that a very considerable part of the ground-tissue,
especially towards the exterior of the stem, is thick-walled and lignified.
(Figures illustrating ordinary stem structure may be found in almost any
botanical text-book).

It is perhaps among hydrophytes that we shall find the widest
departures from the typical structures briefly described above. With so
wide a choice it is difficult to fix upon an example, but let us take first
the stem of Potamogeton natans , one of our commonest pond-weeds,
growing in almost every loch and river where the current is not too
stiong. We shall first describe its structure, and then point out how
this is related to its habitat. When taken from the water the stem is
seen to be brownish in colour, very flexible, and of a very open
texture, except for a distinct strand running along the centre, and
having a diameter of about one eighth of that of the whole stem. It is
not at all easy to make satisfactory sections of such a delicate structure,
but, when made, a transverse section shows the following parts : —

(1) A single-layered epidermis, with a feeble development of cuticle:

(2) a broad cortex, forming by far the larger part of the section : and (3)
the central cylinder. The cortex is very peculiar, and consists, as seen
in transverse section, of a lace-like network composed of rows of cells,
with large rounded or irregularly shaped spaces between them. The
fact is that the cortex instead of being a more or less compact tissue, as
in a typical herbaceous stem, is of a spongy nature, containing large
cavities which are separated by walls one cell thick, hence the lace-like
appearance in transverse section. In the angles of the mesh a few
thick-walled elements are occasionally seen. These cavities are of
various lengths, and are separated at irregular intervals by approximately
horizontal walls, fragments of which may often be seen in transverse
sections. Towards the centre of the stem the cortex becomes more
compact, and its innermost layer of cells, next to the central cyclinder,
has the cell-walls distinctly thickened on the inner side. This layer is
known as the endodermis, and is not often distinctly marked in stems,
though it is usually quite conspicuous in roots.

As Potamogeton is a monocotyledon we might naturally expect the
central cylinder to resemble the stem of the maize in structure, but at
first sight the resemblance is not apparent. Careful examination,
however, shows the presence of about eight fibro-vascuiar bundles,
arranged in a somewhat irregular ring, but only cavities are found in
place of the large wood elements. These bundles are set in a ground-
tissue composed largely of thin-walled cells containii g starch, with a
few thick walled elements (fibres) in the neighbourhood of the bundles.

GEORGE F. BATES ON ANOMALIES OF PLANT STRUCTURE. 4 1

(For a figure of a transverse section of the stem of Potamogeto?i natans
see De Bary,“ Comparative Anatomy of Phanerogams and Ferns, ”p. 368).

These peculiarities in the stem of P. natans are distinctly related to
its habitat. The following points are worthy of consideration : —

1. The cuticle of an ordinary plant is impervious to water, and
its main function is to prevent the drying-up of the tissues
beneath it. Living as it does, submerged in water, P. ?iatans is
not exposed to the risk of desiccation, and hence has little need
of cuticle, which is in consequence feebly developed.

2. The larger intercellular spaces of the cortex contain air during
the life of the plant. They thus act as floats and keep the
stems and leaves supported in the water — the plant does not lie
like an inert body on the bottom, but floats and waves to and
fro in any current that may exist, and the leaves are thereby
brought into contact with the largest possible volume of water —
an important matter for a submerged plant which has to obtain
its gaseous food from the air dissolved in water ; and, in addition,
there can be little doubt that the air in the cavities serves as a
source of such gaseous food.

3. The concentration of such hard material as exists into a central
cylinder is a mechanical adaptation to the plant’s habitat. The
strains and stresses to which a plant growing in water is exposed
are mostly longitudinal, and are thus different from those of a
plant growing in air, which are largely transverse. To meet
these latter strains, and to support the weight of the plant, a
girder-like or cylindrical arrangement of hard tissues (wood, etc.),
is best adapted, but for longitudinal strains an arrangement akin
to a wire or string is more suitable.

4. The wood of a plant, or the y<;ung wood of trees, is the water
conducting tissue, as can be readily shown by a few simple
experiments. Clearly, a plant submerged in water has little need
of water-conducting tissues, hence we can easily understand why
wood is feebly developed in our type.

An interesting plant for comparison with Potamogeton natans is the
Marestail ( Hippuris vulgaris ), an inhabitant of bogs and marshes in
many parts of Perthshire, particularly in the higher regions. (This
plant is not to be confused with the Horsetail (. Equisetum ), several
species of which are very common, some growing in marshes and ponds).
The chief differences of stem structure lie in the central cylinder, which
consists of (a) an outer ring of bast ; (p) an interrupted ring of wood ;
and (c) ground tissue forming a central pith. The more obvious
arrangement of these tissues in rings is due to the fact that the Marestail
is a dicotyledon, while the pondweed is a monocotyledon.

42 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

Another common hydrophyte showing special features is the Bog-
bean ( Menyanthes trifoliata ), almost universally distributed throughout
the marshes of Perthshire and many other districts. Its beautiful
flowers make it conspicuous wherever it grows, and its former use as a
medicinal herb has made it widely known. The plant consists of a stout
rhizome or root-stock, really a modified stem, growing on or near the
surface of the mud, and attached thereto by short thick roots. The
leaves (and flowers) are not submerged but stand up above the surface
of mud or water. The root-stocks usually form a dense tangle, as may
be seen occasionally when the mud has been washed away by a flood
or by the action of waves on the margin of a loch. They are half an-
inch or more in thickness, and somewhat swollen at the nodes like a
miniature rattan cane. A transverse section shows a comparatively
broad cortex, which, like that of the pondweed, is of a spongy texture,
but the air spaces are smaller and much more numerous. The central
cylinder is well-marked : there is a ring of fibro-vascular bundles with
well-developed wood, and the pith closely resembles the cortex, but is
of somewhat finer structure. Piers and there a bundle may be seen
breaking away externally from the ring — this is a bundle on its way to a
leaf. A few thick-walled elements are found in some cases both
internal and external to tire bundles. There is no definite layer like the
endodermis of Potamogeton, marking off the central cylinder from the
cortex, but a layer of cells corresponding to the endodermis surrounds
each individual bundle. (Plate 2, Fig. 1).

It is fairly obvious that the open texture found in the root-stock of
the bog-bean can have no relation to floating, as the organ is attached to
the substratum by roots ; it is to the deficiency of the air supply, due to the
plant’s habitat, that we must look for an explanation of this structure.

Before leaving the subject of hydrophytes, I should like to refer for
a minute or two to the water-lilies. These plants, as everybody knows,
grow in still or slowly running water, the leaves floating on the surface
and the flowers projecting above it. For our present purpose the chief
interest lies in the leaf-stalks or petioles, which in the white water-lily are
cylindrical, half an inch or so in th cknes, and in the yellow7 w'ater-lily
somewhat flattened, and considerably thinner. As the true stem,
rhizome, or root-stock, of the plant grows attached to the mud at the
bottom of the water, the leaf-stalks must be about as long as the water
is deep. They are very flexible, so as to adapt themselves to minor
alterations in the depth of the water, and so keep the leaves always on
the surface; while at the same time they are very light, so that they are
readily supported by the wrater, and do not tend to drag the leaves below7
the surface. The leaf-stalk of the wrhite water-lily may be considered
first. A transverse section show's the following structures : —

GEORGE F. BATES ON ANOMALIES OF PLANT STRUCTURE. 43

1. An epidermis with, as usual in water-plants, a very thin cuticle.

2. A layer of ground tissue, several cells thick, small celled externally,
the cells gradually increasing in size towards the interior of
the stalk.

3. Embedded in this layer, nearly but not quite touching the
epidermis, are isolated lignified cells, forming a thin, scattered
ring.

4. The general ground tissue, with relatively enormous air-spaces,
separated by walls which are usually several cells thick. Pro¬
jecting from the walls into the spaces are the so called “ internal
hairs ” — branched lignified cells of a very curious and striking
appearance. (It is difficult to imagine what part these hairs play
in the economy of the plant, but as their walls are impregnated
with calcium oxalate, a (probable) waste product which often
appears in the tissues of plants in the form of crystals, one
function would appear to be the storage of this material.)

5. Bundles of a somewhat peculiar type forming an interrupted ring
in the region between the outer compact ground-tissue and the
inner spongy region. Others are more irregulary distributed in
the spongy tissue, lying in the masses of tissue formed by the
junctions of the walls of the air-spaces. In all the bundles the
woody portions are absent or feebly developed.

For comparison with this we may take a transverse section of
the leaf-stalk of the yellow water-lily found in Methven Loch and
elsewhere. It differs mainly in shape and size, but we may note
the absence of the sub-epidermal layer of lignified cells, and the
fact that the partitions between the air spaces are only one cell thick.
The internal hairs are very striking and numerous— they maybe seen to
originate from cells lying at the junction angles of the partitions, the
same cell sending out projections into two or more adjacent air-spaces.

The point I desire to emphasise is that the structure of these leaf¬
stalks, as revealed by the microscope, is ideal for giving the combined
lightness and flexibility required by the habitat and habit of growth of
the plants in question. (Plate 2, Fig. 2).

Let us now pass on to consider a few structures typical of xerophytes.
As might be expected, these are not so common among native plants as
hydrophytes — the climate of Scotland does not tend towards xerophytic
conditions! — nevertheless we can draw a few examples from native
plants. Let us realise at the outset that the great object in life of a
xerophyte is economy of water. This is effected by numerous devices,
and by modifications of internal structure, some of which will be dis-

44 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

cussed later in the present paper. In an ordinary plant there is a steady
flow of water through the organism, the water absorbed from the soil
by the roots being evaporated from the leaves, chiefly through the
stomata, in the process known as transpiration. This process is most
active where growth is most active, and is reduced to a minimum when
the plant is dormant, as, for instance, in deciduous trees in winter. The
structure of a normal leaf is such as to enable the process (as well as
other functions of the leaf) to be carried on efficiently. It consists of a
system of more or less complete vascular bundles, which are in direct
communication with those of the stem, embedded in cellular tissue,
often composed of an upper compact layer and a lower spongy layer,
with numerous air-spaces, the whole being enclosed in an epidermis,
the external walls of the epidermal cells being more or less strongly
cuticularised. Piercing the epidermis are numerous minute openings,
the stomata or breathing-pores, which may be found on both, or either,
of the surfaces of the leaf. These stomata are capable of opening or
closing under varying conditions of light, temperature, etc., and it is
through them that transpiration mainly takes place. An obvious
method of reducing transpiration, then, would be a reduction in the
number of the stomata by the reduction of leaf-surface. But leaves
have other functions besides transpiration, and leaf-surface cannot
be reduced indefinitely unless other arrangements are made for carrying
on these functions. The common broom ( Cytisus scoparius) will teach
us something on these points. Growing as it often does, on sandy banks,
heath etc., the water supply of this plant must often be precarious, and,
except in its seedling stages, it is p-acticaliy leafless. A transverse
section of a young twig will show how the broom has solved its problem.
The internal structure of pith, wood, and bast is quite normal, but
towards the exterior we find a comparatively thick lay-er of soft tissue,
running out into five points, which are the sections of five ridges which
run along the stem. Each ridge is strengthened by a strand of lignified
cells. In the fresh state this soft layer is found to be richly laden with
chlorophyll, the green substance of leaves, and one without which the
leaf cannot carry on its most important function. We guess then that
the functions of the leaf have been taken over by this external layer of
the stem, and our conjecture is confirmed by the presence of stomata on
the epidermis. In this way the broom has secured for itself a con¬
siderable reduction of transpiring surface, without sacrificing the other
benefits conferred by leaves.

It has already been mentioned that the cuticle of a plant is impervious
to water — it is like a waterproof layer, checking evaporation from within
as well as saturation from without. The thicker the cuticle the more
effective it will be, and thus we find that one of the commonest plans

GFORGE F. BATES ON ANOMALIES OF PLANT STRUCTURE. 45

adopted by xerophytes is a thickening of the cuticle. The needles’1 of
pine-trees are a case in point. They supply us with a very good example
of a reduction of transpiring surface, for obviously the surface of a pine-
needle is much less than that of atypical leaf, and in addition, illustrate
what was said about thickening of the cuticle. A section of the leaf of
Pinus sylvestris , the Scots pine, shows several points of interest, of which
the following may be mentioned.

1. The cuticle is thick everywhere except over the stomata: these
consequently lie in a depression, and their activity is doubtless
modified by this fact.

2. Under the epidermis there is a layer of strongly lignified cells.

3. The cells composing the green tissue have their walls infolded
into numerous depressions. This is possibly to give each cell a
greater than normal surface, and thereby to make up for the
reduction of leaf surface.

There is a well-marked central cylinder — unusual in leaves — but
this does not concern us at present.

It is, however, to desert plants and to natives of regions with a long
dry season that we must turn for the most extreme xerophytic characters-
A visit to the appropriate house at Kew or other botanic gardens will
show a perfect nightmare of xerophytes. Among other characters we
may note plants without leaves, but with green succulent stems which
carry out the leaf-functions, and in addition store up the precious water ;
plants of every degree of spikiness and thorniness ; plants with sword¬
shaped leaves of surprising toughness, pointed like needles, and so on
in endless variety ; and not the least surprising fact is that p’ants of
totally different natural orders have come to resemble each other closely
in their external features, owing to their being developed in the same
environment. Such a house is a perfect elysium to a microscopist, for
he knows that almost every plant will furnish material of the highest
interest. We have only time to refer, more or less briefly, to a few of
the exotic plants which show more or less xerophytic characters.
Cycas revoluta has its stomata not only at the bottom of comparatively
deep pits, but each pit is roofed over, with the exception of a small
aperture, by a projection of the cuticle all round it. In Dasylirion
acrostichon the sides of the pit bear projections of cuticle, which almost
block up the passage to and from the stoma. A more familiar plant is
Phormium tenax , the New Zealand flax, which can be grown out of-
doors in the more temperate parts of Britain. A native of New Zealand,
a country with a fairly equable climate, it is not so typically xerophytic
as some plants we have mentioned, but a transverse section of one of
its sword-shaped leaves shows the following points of interest : —

46 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

1. A (morphologically) upper epidermis.

2. Soft tissues (assimilatory), small celled and compact towards
both surfaces, with slightly larger cells and air spaces towards
the middle.

3. Fibro-vascular bundles, the larger ones with well-developed
wood and bast ; the smaller ones, which lie towards the lower
surface, imperfect.

4. Surrounding each bundle is a sheath of fibrous tissue, the
cell-walls being strongly lignified. Strands of fibrous tissue also
occur near the lower epidermis. It is these fibres which give
the plant its economic value.

5. A (morphologically) lower epidermis, with well-developed cuticle
and sunk stomata lying in furrows.

This large development of fibrous tissue is another common
xerophytic character.

With one other example I must conclude this part of my paper. It
is taken from Australia, the land, par excellence, of xerophytes apart from
tropical and sub-tropical deserts. The plant in question is Hakea suavolens ,
a member of the natural order, Proteaceae , a large order with about 50
genera practically all of which are natives of regio s where there is a
long dry season, and which have developed xerophytic characters in an
extreme degree. In H. suaveolens the leaves are practically reduced to
midribs, forming what is termed the centric type

The epidermis in a section of such a leaf is seen to be well
cuticularised, and the stomata are deeply sunk, the cavities being
arched over, much as in Cycas revoluta. Under the epidermis we
have a palisade layer, composed for the most part of two layers of
relatively long narrow cells set at right angles to the epidermis ; many
of the cells, however, are so long that they abut on the epidermis at
one end, and on the central cylinder at the other. The central cylinder
is composed of three large complete bundles of wood and bast and
several smaller ones, each with its sheath of hard tissue, embedded in a
ground tissue of uniform cells. (Plate 3, Fig. 1).

In conclusion, I want to utter a word of warning which might
perhaps have appropriately come earlier It is this : there are no hard
and fast lines between mesophytes, hydrophytes, and xerophytes. We
must not expect to find all hydrophytic characters in all water plants; every
water-plant is not a typical hydrophyte ; neither is every plant growing
in a dry situation a typical xerophyte. All that we can say is that many
plants growing in wet situations show remarkable adaptations to their
habitat, and similarly for plants of dry situations. Some of these
adaptations I have endeavoured to describe, largely from one point of
view. The examples I have chosen might be varied almost indefinitely:

GEORGE F. BATES ON ANOMALIES OF PLANT STRUCTURE. 47

they h ive been chosen simply because of the material at my disposal ;
they best illustrate the points I wish to discuss. To deal fully with the
characters of hydrophytes and xerophytes would require, not a paper,
but a large volume, but I hope I have said enough to show you that the
subject is full of interest.

In the second part of this paper I propose to deal with anomalies as
illustrated by climbing plants, and with some peculiarities in the
secondary thickening of stems.

Part II.

In the former part of this paper I dealt with a number of anomalies
of plant structure which were intimately related to the habitats of the
plants in question ; in this second and concluding portion I propose to
discuss a few peculiarities which arise from, or are correlated with, not
the habitat, but the habit of growth of the plant. (By the term “habit
of growth ” we mean the general form taken by the plant, as, for example,
when we speak of a plant as creeping, erect, a climber, etc.) The con¬
nection between peculiarities of structure and the habit of growth is not
always obvious or easy of explanation, and indeed in many cases we are
to a large extent in the dark as to the why and wherefore of certain
phenomena. We abo find ourselves face to face with problems analogous
to those preferred to the former part of this paper. If certain structures
are of obvious advantage to plants growing in water, why do not all water
plants possess these structures, and why, again, if some peculiarity is of
marked advantage to climbing plants, why is it not found in all climbers ?
Or, again, if certain members of a family exhibit structures advantageous
to climbing plants, why do these structures appear in those members of
the same family which do not possess the climbing habit? In cases of
this kind we can only fall back upon general principles. Nature is not
tied down to any one method of achieving her end, but may attain the
same result by varied methods. Structures in a non-climbing plant which
are apparently connected with the climbing habit, may be inherited from
a climbing ancestor, and so on.

Climbers are pre-eminent as examples of anomalous stem structure,
and these structures appear in many instances to have one object in view,
that is, to prevent undue pressure upon, and crushing of, the soft tissues,
and particularly of the soft bast — this tissue being of supreme importance
to the plant, for by it the elaborated sap, the real plant food, travels to all
growing and storing regions. Any serious interruption of the supply
would be fatal to those parts which were cut off by the interruption, and

48 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

there might be serious interference with the vital activities of the plant.
Consideration will show that this is an accident to which climbing
plants are particularly liable. They are, for the most part, plants of
slender growth, the length of stem being often enormous in comparison
with the diameter. Hence abrupt bendings of the stem may take place
with comparative ease, through failure of the support, or for other
reasons. Perennial twining plants may also be suoject to enormous
stresses by the increase in diameter, due to growth, of the tree or branch
around which they twine. Hence we find not only that the stems of many
climbing plants show peculiarities in their primary structure, but also
that their increase in thickness is effected by abnormal methods It
will therefore be convenient to deal with our subject in two sections,
giving first some examples of anomalous primary structure, and after¬
wards some of anomalous secondary thickening.

Let us commence with a very familiar plant, the vegetable marrow.
A transverse section of the stem shows two rings of bundles, set in
ground-tissue, and surrounding a cent'al cavity formed by the disappear¬
ance of the pith, and hence known as the pith-cavity. This existence of
two distinct rings is in itself a peculiarity of structure common in
climbers, and more will be said about it later. The point to which I
wish to draw your attention is that each bundle has got two well-developed
bast strands, one in its normal position outside the wood, and the other
in an abnormal position inside the wood. The vegetable marrow
has, in this respect, two strings to its bow, and we can easily conceive
circumstances in which the normal (outer) bast might be injured
— crushed or ruptured — while the inner might remain to carry on its
function Bundles of this kind are termed bicollateral, and they are
found in practically all members of the cucumber family, to which the
vegetable marrow belongs.

A section of the stem of the common field-convolvulus (convolvulus
arvensis), shows a somewhat similar structure, but there is only one ring
of bundles, which are not isolated as in the vegetable marrow, but are so
closely connected that the internal bast forms an almost continuous
ring, surrounding the somewhat scanty pith.

Another interesting plant is Lycium barbarum , or Kaffir thorn (also
known as the Duke of Argyll’s tea-tree) a somewhat thorny plant, a
native of South Africa, but quite common in gardens in mild situations.
I have found it growing freely as a garden escape near Dublin. It is a
member of the Solanaceae (potato family), and its bright blue flowers are
exactly like potato blooms in miniature, and when growing luxuriantly
over an old garden wall it presents a very pretty sight. The stem
differs from the two previously mentioned in being woody, and a
transverse section shows a ring of close-grained, compact wood, with a

GEORGE F. BATES ON ANOMALIES OF PLANT STRUCTURE. 49

complete ring of bast situated both internally and externally. It is
interesting to note, in this connection, that the potato, though not a
climber, has bicollateral bundles. It is a plant, however, which has
climbing relations, e.g., the common bitter-sweet, Solanum dulcamara.
(Plate 3, Fig. 2).

An interesting natural order, from the point on view presently under
consideration, is the Apocynaceae , of which the best-known, and perhaps
the only genuine British member is the common periwinkle, Vinca Alinor •
The stem of this plant shows several pecularities worthy of notice.
For our present purpose, however, it will be sufficient to note that inside
the ring of wood, but quite separate from it, there is a ring of bast
strands, so regular and delicate in appearance that when suitably stained
the adjective “ dainty ” alone meets the case. An exotic member of
this order, Apocynum cannabinum , resembles rather the type of Lycium
barbarum , having a complete internal ring of bast closely connected
with the wood.

In another set of stems the soft bast is quite normal, lying to the
outside of the wood, but it is protected by an outer layer or set of
strands of hard material. This arrangement is quite common even in
the stems of non-climbing plants,*?.^, in the sunflower, where a strand of
hard bast lies to the outside of each bundle. There is frequently,
however, a more complete developement in climbers, where the hard
tissues tend to form a complete ring, as in some species of clematis.
The classical example is the genus Aristolocliia , one species of which,
A. clematitis , is naturalised in England, though the same or a similar
species is commonly grown in gardens, where its handsome leaves make
it very conspicious. A transverse section of a young stem shows a very
distinct ring of hard tissue, completely surrounding the vascular bundles
(which have no hard bast) and separated from them by a layer of ground-
tissue several cells thick. This ring of hard tissue is very distinctly
marked off from the cortex proper, and lies in the region which is
known as the pericycle.

It was mentioned above when dealing with the vegetable marrow
that the occurrence of a second ring of bundles inside the normal one
was a phenomenon characteristic of many climbers. Some of the best
examples are drawn from exotic genera, and like many other pecularities,
this one tends to run in families. The pepper family, Piperaceae , is a
huge natural order of about 1050 species; the genus Piper alone has
600 species, mostly climbing shrubs. The familiar condiment is pre¬
pared from the fruit of P. nigrum All are natives of tropical countries.
(It may be mentioned in passing that the British water-pepper does not
belong to this order. Curiously enough, a South African friend brought
me specimens of “ wall pepper,” which proved to belong to a totally

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different order, and its stem, though interesting, showed no structures
bearing on the present subject). Of the two species of Piper which I
have examined, P. nigrum and P. geniculatum , both show an inner ring
of bundles embedded in the pith, and hence called “ medullary bundles,”
in addition to an outer ring, which, in the young state is quite normal,
and which alone undergoes secondary thickening. These medullary
bundles originate in quite a simple way. In a typical dicotyledon, the
bundles which enter the stem from the leaf, or leaf stalk, all penetrate
to the same depth, and then, turning downwards, give rise to the
familiar cylinder of bundles, which appears as a ring in transverse
section. In plants with medullary bundles, however, the bundles from
the leaf-stalk penetrate the stem to varying depths, and then, turning
downwards, form two or more rings, which are often somewhat irregular.
Thus the outer ring of bundles, especially after secondary thickening has
begun, may act as a protection to the inner ring, especially as the outer
ring is usually more complete and compact, at all events in the woody
plants which possess medullary bundles. (Plate 4, Fig. 1).

The process of secondary thickening has been referred to more than
once, and it may perhaps be well, before proceeding further, to describe
this process briefly, in order that the anomalies about to be discussed
may be the more readily understood. When describing a typical
dicotyledonous stem it was pointed out that, between the wood and
bast of the normal bundle, there lies a layer of exceedingly delicate
thin-walled cells — the cambium layer. It is this layer which is responsible
for secondary thickening, i.e ., the gradual increase in thickness of the
stem. The first step is the formation of cambium across the medullary
rays, in such a way as to join up the separate cambiums of the bundles
into a complete ring. The cells of this ring then proceed to divide in
two ways (1) at right-angles to the surface of the stem — by this means
the ring maintains its own continuity, as its diameter increases with the
growth of the stem (2) parallel to the surface — by this means new wood
is continually, during the period of growth, formed internally, and new
bast externally, the former much more abundantly and regularly. In
this way a ring of wood is added to the stem for every period of growth.
By the increase in the diameter of the stem the older bast, cortex, and
epidermis become stretched and disorganised, and a new protective
covering, the bark, is developed to prevent exposure of the internal
tissues. In the trees and shrubs of temperate climates each year's wood
forms a well-marked ring — the familiar annual rings seen when a tree is
cut down. The primary medullary rays are maintained by the cambium,
though usually much narrower than they are originally : new medullary
rays are also started.

We find departures from this normal method of secondary thickening

GEORGE F. BATES ON ANOMALIES OF FLANT STRUCTURE. 51

in a vast number of climbers. Again, our best examples are drawn
from exotic orders. Let us consider one or two members of the natural
order Nyctaginaceae , an order which has no British representatives, but
which is not very distantly related to the pink family. The plants are
natives of tropical regions, especially tropical America, but two general
at least, are wTell-known in cultivation, Mirabilis and Bougainvillaea.
Mirabilis jalapa is the well-known Marvel of Peru ; Bougainvillaea
is commonly grown in conservatories, its bright petaloid bracts render¬
ing it very showy, although its real flowers are quite inconspicuous,
In Mirabilis the vascular structure of the stem is somewhat com¬
plicated, owing to the varying depths to which the leaf traces
penetrate the stem, and to the peculiar way in which the various
parts of the leaf trace unite at the nodes. These primary bundles
do not undergo secondary thickening, but at a comparatively early
stage a ring of cambium* is formed in the ground tissue outside the
bundles, and this proceeds to form new bundles (not simply wood )
internally, the tissue between the bundles becoming lignified, and
looking at first sight like a normal ring of wood.

This appearance is more striking in Bougainvillaea , the lignified
ground tissue becoming intensely hard and difficult to cut. and resembl¬
ing under the microscope a close-grained wood, from which it is
distinguished chiefly, as seen in transverse section, by the embedded
bundles. A more effective way of protecting the bast can scarcely be
imagined; and strange to say a somewhat similar phenomenon occurs
in the stems of Chenopodiaceae, an order which includes numerous
common weeds, none of which are climbers, and the common garden
beet — the familiar rings in the root of this plant being due to the
activities of successive cambium rings. (Plate 4, Fig. 2).

Similar in principle, but differing in detail, is the mode of development
which is found in the well-known Wistaria, and several other less familiar
plants. In these cases the young stem is quite normal, but after
secondary thickening has proceeded for some time the activity of the
cambium ceases, and a new cambium is formed in the outer region
of the bast. This new ring then proceeds to develop wood
internally and bast externally, till in turn it is superseded by a third
cambium ring, and so on.

But perhaps the most curious arrangement is that found in the genus
Strychnos , one of whose members, S. nux vomica , is the source of
strychnine. The plants of this genus show in the young state a ring of
bicollateral bundles , secondary thickening produces a ring of wood with

* Strictly speaking this ring should not be called cambium, A normal cambium
produces wood internally and bast externally, abnormal layers of this kind are more
accurately termed merismatic or meristematic layers, but the term cambium may be
used in a general sense.

52 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

narrow medullary rays. The peculiarity lies in the fact that the cambium
produces somewhat irregulady, and externally to the wood so far formed,
masses of secondary bast, in addition to the normal layer. At the points
where these masses have been formed, the cambium then ceases to be
active, but a new layer is formed from cells somewhat nearer to the
surface of the stem, in such a manner that the continuity of the ring is
restored. Growth then proceeds normally till a further interruption
occurs, and the final result is that these large strands of bast become
entirely surrounded by wood, and from their isolated appearance as seen
in transverse section they are known as bast islands. These plants have
therefore bast in three different situations: (i) internal to the wood (2)
external to the wood, and (3) embedded in the substance of the wood.

In many tropical climbers, especially lianes of the order Sapindaceae,
several cambium rings are developed side by side, each giving rise to its
own set of tissues, so that the stem comes to consist of three or more rings
of wood, etc., and presents the appearance ot several stems fused together.

Less peculiar are the irregularities of development of wood found in
several species of Piper. The stems of this genus of plants have already
been referred to, and it will suffice to say here that secondary thickening
is not absolutely normal, but unequal amounts of wood are developed at
different parts of the circumference, so that in transverse section the
wood has a lobed or undulated outline, the bast dipping into the
depressions and following the outline of the wood. In other plants this
irregularity of development is carried to an extreme degree, so that the
wood comes to have a cruciform or even stellate outline.

In the general description of the structure of a stem in Part I, it was
noted that the vascular bundles of monocotyledonous stems have no
cambium layer. As a consequence of this the vast majority of
monocotyledons undergo no secondary thickening — this is well illustrated
in the stems of palm-trees, bamboos, etc., which when once fully formed
retain the same thickness throughout their life. There are, however, a
few monocotyledons, chiefly arboraceous Liliaceae , which do undergo
secondary thickening, and in a certain sense such plants are doubly
anomalous; first, in undergoing secondary thickening at all, and secondly,
because, having no cambium in their bundles, they proceed on a plan totally
distinct from that of dicotyledons. Perhaps the best known example is
the dragon-tree, Dracaena draco , the source of the resin known as
“ dragon’s blood.’'' The central portion of the stem of this plant is
almost typically monocotyledonous ; it differs from the maize, however,
in the fact that the bundles are concentric, the bast being entirely
surrounded by the wood, and in the fact that there is little or no lignified
ground-tissue in this region of the stem. Towards the outside of the
stem, but still a considerable distance from the surface, a layer of

Plate 2, Fig". 1.

Plate 2, Fig. 2.

BRITISH

MUSEUM

5 DEC 21

NATURAL

HISTORY.

Plate 3, Fig:. 1.

Plate 3, Fig:. 2.

BRITISH

MUSEUM

5 DEC 21

NATURAL

HISTORY.

Plate 4, Fig- 2

BRITISH

MUSEUM

5 DEC 21

NATURAL

H ls> i URT-

GEORGE F. BATES ON ANOMALIES OF PLANT STRUCTURE.

meristem, or growing tissue, appears. As in the case of the Nyctaginaceae
and other plants mentioned above, this growing layer should, strictly
speaking, not be called cambium, because it does not produce wood
internally and bast externally. It has, however, all the appearance of
cambium, and this term may be applied to it in a general sense. From
this layer are developed, on its inner side, numerous complete concentric
fibro-vascular bundles, which, with the intermediate ground tissue, here
strongly lignified, give rise to a compact ring of tissue mainly of a woody
nature, which gradually increases in thickness as the stem grows older.
There used to be a famous dragon-tree at Teneriffe, but it was blown
down about 50 years ago, being then nearly 15 feet in diameter, so that
the above process of secondary thickening, if anomalous, is certainly
effective.

This is the last of the examples which I propose to bring be ore
you on the present occasion. I was encouraged in the selection
of this subject by the fact that it is one which is ignored or slightly
treated in the ordinary botanical text-book, and yet it is one which is
full of interest and one which offers a wide field for further investigation.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

Plate I., Fig. 1. Central portion of Rhizome of Menyanthes trifoliata, showing
fibro-vascular ring, with lacunar cortex and pith, as seen in transverse
section.

Plate I., Fig. 2. Portion of Transverse section of leaf -stalk of yellow water
lily, showing air-spaces, fibro-vascular bundles and internal hairs or
idioblasts.

Plate II., Fig. 1. Transverse section of leaf of Hakea suaveolens.

Plate IF, Fig. 2. Portion of Transverse section of stem of Lycium barb arum ,
showing internal and external bast.

Plate III., Fig. 1. Portion of Transverse section of stem of Piper geniculatum,
showing ring of medullary bundles and normal ring. At the bottom left
hand corner is the commencement of an irregularity in the development
of the wood.

Plate III., Fig. 2. Portion of Transverse section of stem of Bougainvillaea
glabra, showing medullary bundles and broad band of hard tissue
containing numerous bundles embedded therein.

The sections are uniformly magnified approximately 30 diameters.

E

54 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

V. — Facts and Fallacies about Foods.

By Dr. C. Parker Stewart, M.O.H.

(Read 12th December, 1919.)

There seems to be almost an innate feeling-, widely prevalent
particularly amongst the less well-to-do classes, that it is mean
or wrong to- think much about what one should eat, and yet, it
is not overstating the case to say that national prosperity depends
much more closely upon the kitchen than is at alt appreciated.
The health, vigour and working capacity of every member of the
family are decided by it.

Now, without further preliminary remarks, I will proceed to- the
subject by asking the question, “What is Food”? To answer
this question I take this illustration — a very old illustration, but
nevertheless good, because it fairly represents to us a true basis
on which the answer to the question can be given. My illustration
is that of the steam engine, one constructed on the best and most
scientific principles. We all know that the engine, however well
constructea, will stand till the crack of doom, without turning a
wheel, or moving a piston, with a heat corresponding to- the air
with which it is in contact, unless something is applied to it other
than the mechanism of which it consists. We deal in fact with
an Inanimate object — a thing of no Life — a thing without Power.
That something we call Energy, or the power of doing work.

How doi we supply that energy? We all know the answer.
Fuel in the shape of coal or oil is put into the furnace — the fire
burns, steam is raised, and it is soon at high pressure. The release
of the steam into the cylinders sets the piston rod in motion,
which in its turn moves the wheel. The engine now, as we may
put it, is possessed of life — this power of doing work being derived
from the combustion of the coal or oil. Now what does this
burning of coal imply? Coal consists of f of Carbon, or as more
commonly known — charcoal. Now Carbon has a great attraction
for Oxygen- — a gas which is present in the atmosphere to the extent
of 20% — and when Carbon is placed in such a situation that it can
combine with the oxygen of the atmosphere the result of the
chemical combination is the development of heat and the formation
of Carbonic acid gas. The result of the fierceness, so to speak,
of the force with which the particles of oxygen and carbon collide
with one another, on entering into- combination, is to- produce heat.
It is this combination then, of carbon in the coal and oxygen in the
atmosphere, which produces in the steam engine the energy or the
power of doing work.

DR, PARKER SI EWART ON FACTS AND FALLACIES ABOUT FOODS. 55

■ Consider then, the engine in working order. It expends its
■energy in a multitude of ways, and we know that the amount of
work it will accomplish will depend upon the quantity of fuel
consumed, or in other words, there is an absolute relationship
between the amount of work the engine can do1 and the amount of
chemical combination going on in the furnace. There is another
thing it is well to note in regard to1 the engine. The mere shovelling
of coal into the furnace will not keep your engine going indefinitely.
The engine requires constant attention on the part of the engineer.
Every rise of the piston, every turn of the wheel implies tear and
wear. In short, the doing of work implies not only expenditure
of fuel m the furnace, but the waste of the working parts of the
engine, and in order that the engine may be kept in good working
order, not only must the engineer supply fuel, but he must repair
the waste.

Similarly with the human engine. The human body has the
power of doing work. I do not necessarily imply manual labour
only, though that, of course, is apparently the most pronounced
way in which the human body can do’ work. For instance, take a
person lying still — (the heart beating regularly, the chest rising and
falling sixteen times a minute. He may be lying awake, uttering
no sound, but, through his eyes, taking note of the pictures on the
wall; or he may be lying with his eyes closed, thinking of business
or other problems. In all these ways the man is doing work — the
muscles of his chest are doing work, the nerve cells of his brain
are doing work, and work cannot be done unless by an expense of
energy. It may interest you if I give you some idea of the large
Quantity of work a man may do while seeming to< do no work at all.
1 need not take you through the calculation, but suppose the heart
beats 75 times a minute, and that with every beat it expels 6 oz. of
blood. As the arteries of the body are already filled, and room
requires to be made for the additional 6 oz. , considerable resistance
has also to be overcome. It has been calculated that the heart alone,
working quietly and steadily, in this way expends a quantity of
energy m 24 hours sufficient to raise one ton to a height of 2400
feet, or one ton nearly half a mile into the air. If we add to this
the work done by the muscles of respiration and the energy
expended in the form of heat we find this amazing result — that
there is daily expended in a human body at rest an amount of energy
which, if applied to lifting, would lift a man of 150 lbs. to- a height
of nearly eight miles. That energy must be obtained from some¬
where or other.

In rhe next place we note as in the case of the engine there is
a “ wear and tear.” Even with the body at rest there is a constant
waste going on. No living being can ever exist, or perform the
simplest vital act, without entailing waste. You cannot lift an

56 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

eyelid or move a finger without waste. Every beat of the heart
means a waste of its muscular substance, every thought implies
a waste of the nerve tissue of the brain, and none of these actions
can take place without the organ which works in each case
exhibiting waste proportionate to its work. If it works much it
wastes much ; if it works little it wastes little. I may mention here
that the three organs in our body devoted to the getting rid of waste
material are the lungs, the skin, and the kidneys. In addition to
this internal work there is also external work in the form of manual
labour, recreation, etc., implying a larger expenditure of energy
and a corresponding degree of waste in the shape of “ wear and
tear. ' In these respects then we see that the steam engine and
human engine are similar, and that if the human engine is to be
kept in good working order material for the supply of energy must
be given, and material for the repair of the waste must be provided.

It is interesting to note, however, that there are some very
important differences between the steam and human engine. The
efficiency of the human engine, that is the proportion of the latent
power of the fuel or food which may re-appear as work, is as much
as of the whole, while in the steam engine it is not more than
The steam engine requires constant care and attention, whereas
the human machine is self-repairing, its “ wear and tear ” being
made good from some of the material supplied to it as fuel. The
human engine is also> more adaptable than the mechanical engine,
as it can adjust itself to work economically or otherwise according
to the task before ft. Lastly, it has the means of storing up a
reserve of food energy upon which it can draw for a time to do
work when the ordinary supply of fuel or food is temporarily
withheld.

These, then, are the functions which food performs : —

(1) To supply energy for performing work,

(2) To replace the losses continually taking place from the body

— and I might mention
<_>

(3) To maintain the animal heat, or in other words to supply

warmth — our clothes are only for the purpose of keeping
that heat, in — and it is from our food that the heat itself
is derived.

Andnowwie can give an answer to the question, “What is Food.’’
Food, then, is a material which yields substances for providing
energy for w^otk in the body, or for the repair of the waste of the
body, and if any substance does neither of these — if it neither yields
energy or material for the repair of waste — it is not entitled to be
called a food at all.

We next ask ourselves, “ How7 does the human body obtain
energy and from w7hat kind of material ”? We have seen that

DR. PARKER STEWART ON FACTS AND FALLACIES ABOUT FOODS. 57

the steam engine was made to work from energy derived by the
combustion of coal — a chemical combination: of Carbon and
Oxygen — causing- formation of heat. In the same way energy is
obtained for the body. It is perhaps not sufficiently realized that
the energy or strength of the human machine is derived from the
food consumed within it, in the same sense that the “ power ” of
the steam engine is derived from the coal burnt within it. Operations
go on within the human body essentially the same as in the steam
engine. Material capable of combining with Oxygen is taken into
the body, and the chemical combination produces heat which is
the source of energy. This chemical combination is chiefly a
combination of Carbon and Oxygen, carbon supplied in our food
and oxygen from the air we breathe.

In the next place, what substances yield material for repair of
waste in the body? We get our answer when we learn the composi¬
tion of the body.

Composition of the Body.

Water, 60 per cent.

Protein, - - - - 18 ,,

Fats, 15

Carbo-hydrates 1

Salts J 7

Let us consider some of the substances for a moment.

Fats and Carbo-hydrates are composed of three elements,
Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen, and it is in the way these elements
are built together whether the product shall be a fat like butter,
a sugar like syrup, or a starch like arrowroot. In the case of the
substance Protein — typical examples of which are the white of egg
and the curd of milk — we find it differs from the fats and carbo¬
hydrates in containing another element, viz. ; — Nitrogen. Thus,
excluding “ salts,’3 we come to the conclusion that the human body
consists chiefly of four elements, C. H. O. and N.

Fats are one of the great sources of animal heat and energy for
work. This quality is taken advantage of by people living in cold
climates. When people have to eat a diet in which fat is deficient
their health soon gets undermined. Fats are very important in
assisting the assimilation and digestion of the other substances of
a diet, and in fact protein substances are not properly digested
unless in the presence of fat. This may be shown by the
administration of small doses of Cod Liver Oil or Olive Oil.
It is then given, not so much for the sake of the small quantity
of fat in a teaspoonful of oil, but to promote the digestion and
absorption of other subsume0. It thus becomes a remedy in some
forms of indigestion. Fats do not directly tend to the upbuilding
of the body. Fat is contained in a large number of articles of
food — both animal and vegetable.

58 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

PERCENTAGE OF FAT IN SOME ARTICLES OF FOOD.

Animal. vegetable.

Lean Beef, -

.

4-5

Bread, -

-

-

1.

Bacon, -

-

65-

Indian Meal,

-

-

5-

Ham,

-

52-2

Rice, -

-

-

0

•0

Cheese, -

.

33-

Oatmeal,

-

-

/ ■

Milk, -

.

4-

Flour, -

-

-

1.9

Eggs, -

-

10.4

Barley, -

-

-

0 ^

Butter, -

.

86.

Dried Peas, -

-

-

J-5

Margarine, -

-

82.6

Lentils,

-

-

2 .

Dripping,

-

96.4

Haricot Beans,

-

-

2.2

Mackerel

Potatoes,

-

-

.2

Herring J

7-

Turnip,

-

-

•15

Salmon,

.

12.5

Cabbage,

-

-

•37

Cod j

Carrot,

-

-

0

•0

Whiting V -

•5

Onions,

-

-

.28

Haddock )

Cocoa,

-

-

!-5

Apples, -

-

.4

Banana,

-

.56

Beer,

_

- Nil.

Carbo-hydrates iare largely contained in vegetable sources of
food. They have no nitrogen in them, and are therefore not capable
of nourishing the tissues of the body by themselves. Within the
body they are changed into fat, and largely assist in the supply of
heat and energy. The quantity of Carbo-hydrates in animal food
is negligible.

PERCENTAGE OF CARBO-HYDRATES IN SOME ARTICLES OF FOOD.

Animal.

Cereal.

Milk, --- -

5*

Rice, -

/ / *

Cheese, ...

2.4

Flour, .... -

71-

Barley, -----

69.6

Vegetable.

Indian Meal, -

69.4

Potato, --- -

19.

Oatmeal, -

66.

Onion, - - - -

00

G-

1

Bread, -----

47-

Carrot, ....

10.

Turnip,

5-

Puise.

Cabbage,

5-8

Lentils, ....

-x ->

0'-- J

Proteins. In most

animal

foods these are present in

large

amount, but scanty in the vegetable foods. There are exceptions
to this rule in the case of many cereal foods such as oats, wheat,
and maize, and also in the pulse foods. The latter are very rich in
protein but deficient in fat, while the three first-named contain the
necessary food-stuff s in good proportion.

DR. PARKER STEWART ON FACTS AND FALLACIES ABOUT FOODS. 59

Generally speaking- the proteins of the vegetable world are not
so accessible to us — that is to say, not so capable of assimilation
and not so digestible. Without further change we can eat the flesh
of an animal and be nourished thereby, but it is difficult for us to
get aibumenoids from vegetables without cooking, while from many
it is impossible even with the aid of cooking to get them. Animals
can, however, extract these aibumenoids for us. The ox, for
instance, is furnished with a stomach which enables it to digest
woody fibre and cellulose — substances which defy our stomachs —
and convert them into a form easily digestible by us, and with
the aid of cooking we have a very cheap and accessible store of
aibumenoids in the vegetable world.

As I have already remarked, proteins are remarkable on account
of containing a large proportion of nitrogen -in their structure.
The others — fats and carbo-hydrates — contain no nitrogen, and any
substance which does not contain nitrogen will not build up the
tissues of the body. The special function of protein substances is
to build up the body, to repair its tissues, and subserve the purpose
in some cases of furnishing warmth and energy, though for the
latter purposes they are wasteful food. When animals are fed on
food from which protein substances are totally wanting they
rapidly lose substance, and die from what is called nitrogen
starvation. On the other hand protein substances are not sufficient
for carrying on the functions of the body for any time. Gelatine will
not keep a dog alive for any length of time. In fact it dies rather
sooner than if starved out and out.

We have then seen that the chief elements in the composition
of our body are C. H. O. and N., and as proteins are the main
source of nitrogen, while the fats and carbo-hydrates are the chief
sources of carbon required by the body, it is convenient to estimate
diet according to the nitrogen and carbon contained in it. By
numerous experiments it has been determined that a healthy man
doing an ordinary amount of work needs per day 300 grains of
nitrogen and 4800 grains of carbon. If he gets these two quantities
supplied to him, he will be able to expend energy in the doing of
a good day’s work and be able to make good his tissue loss ; and
at the close of the day he will be in the condition he was in the
morning, having neither gained nor lost. In the two bottles before
me I have these elements — carbon, a solid : nitrogen, a gas. This
bottle contains the daily quantity necessary for a man doing a
moderate amount of work, viz. 10 oz., the other contains a sample
of nitrogen. But the human body is not designed to take these
elements in this form, and this is where vegetable and animal life
come to our aid. Vegetation takes up the elements — ammonlacal
salts containing nitrogen from the soil and carbon from the air —
and works these beggarly elements into the substance of its own

6o TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

body, forming- proteins, fats, and starch. In turn cattle introduce
this material into their bodies and work at into higher forms.
Then man takes the barley and oats and potato, and he makes use
of the ox and the sheep, and he builds up this material into the
higher structure of his own frame. It is possible that in the future
our chemists may have the power of building up these elements,
and by synthesis give us foods prepared without the intervention
of plant or animal. Personally, I am content to rely on Nature.

In what forms then do we find carbon and nitrogen worked
up for our use? The following tables will show you the chief
forms of foods that contain these elements : —

CARBONACEOUS FOODS.

Starches.

Sago.

Cornflour.

Arrowroot

Tapioca.

Sugars.
Cane Sugar.
Grape Sugar.
Beet Sugar.

T reacle.
Golden Syrup.
Honey.

Fats.

Butter.

Margarine.

Dripping.

Lard.

Oils (.Almond)

,, (Olive, etc.).

These food stuffs contain no nitrogen, and while yielding energy
for doing work yield nothing which will repair the tissues.

NITROGENOUS FOODS.

From .Animal Kingdom.

Butcher Meat of all kinds.
Poultry.

Wild Fowl and Game.

Fish and Shell Fish.

Hggs.

Milk.

From Vegetable Kingdom.

Beans, Peas, Lentils.

Oatmeal, Flour.

Rye, Barley, Indian Corn.

Rice, Potatoes.

AVgetables and Fruits of all kinds.

There is here a large assortment of substances which contain
carbon and nitrogen worked up into' a form in which they are fit
for use. Now the problem is to take such a quantity of the
carbonaceous and nitrogenous foods as will yield us the 300 grains
N. and 4800 grains C. It is plain that the carbonaceous foods,,
having no nitrogen, are unable to supply what is necessary. But
meat, eggs, milk, peas, oatmeal, etc., contain both nitrogen and
carbon. Would anyone of these foods alone suffice? This resolves
itself into the question : Does anv of the food stuffs contain the
C. and the N. in the proportion of 4800 grains of the former to
300 grains of the latter ?

The following table shows whether it is easy to get a single
food in the proportion named : —

DR. PARKER STEWART OK FACTS AND FALLACIES ABOUT FOODS. 6l

joo Grains of Nitrogen in 4800 Grains of Carbon in

Cheese,

-

-

- T 9I

OZ.

644

Lentils,

-

-

— T ^ —

y y

26

Peas,

-

-

iS±

y y

264

Beef,

-

-

195

y y

72

Eggs, -

-

-

31

y y

29

Bread, -

-

-

465

y y

20

Rice,

-

-

82

y y

18*

Potato,

-

-

- 320

y y

65I

Four and a half pounds of Beef will yield the 4800 grains of
Carbon we require, but at the same time it contains 1200 grains
of Nitrogen, or four times too much. On the other hand, if we
eat 5 lbs. of nice we will get the requisite amount of nitrogen but
an unnecessary quantity of carbon. This is not an economical thing
to do from the point of view, either of our pocket or our health.
Since you cannot get the carbon and nitrogen in due proportion in
almost any food stuff, it becomes necessary toi combine two or
more food stuffs to secure the proper quantity of each element.

Now, putting carbon and nitrogen aside for a moment let us
consider the proportion of Proteids, Fats, Carbo-hydrates and
Salts required in an average daily diet. A person doing a day’s
moderate work requires : —

Protein,

Fats,

Carbo-hydrates,

Salts,

35-4 oz.
3! oz.
17 \ oz.
I oz.

All in ih.e
dry state

y

or a proportion of 1 of Protein to 5-5- of other food-stuffs. But
of these food-situffs some are more essential than others. Thus,
starch and fats are to a large extent interchangeable, a deficiency
of one can be made up by an extra allowance of the other. This
applies also to some extent to the proteins, but only to a limited
degree.

A suitable diet must contain a certain minimum quantity of pro¬
teins generally placed at 2 oz. of the dry material for the 24 hours.

As I have stated, the quantity for moderate work is about
double, 3^- to 4 oz, Broadly speaking, f of the day’s food consists
of starch. For hard work the amount of protein would be 6 to
7 oz., fats 4 to 5 O'Z., carbo-hydrates about 20 oz., and salts i-J to

OZ.

It is thus seen that there should be a certain balance between
these substances, otherwise disaster in the shape of various ailments
is sooner or later likely to result, and it is perfectly wonderful how
correct popular instinct is in the combinations which it has affected.
For instance, animal and vegetable food are taken together. Bread,

62 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

which is deficient in fat, is taken with butter, bacon with greens,
pork with peas pudding. Peas contain 22 per cent, of nitrogenous
material, while bacon has only 8. On the other hand, peas are poor
in fat, having only 2 per cent., while bacon has 65 to 70, so that, by
combining the two, the excess of the one balances the deficiency
of the other. Many other combinations will occur to your mind.

In the next table is set forth the proportion of nitrogenous to
non -nitrogenous constitutents in different foods according to Liebig,
and it will be seen that there is no single article of diet which is
perfectly balanced. (Milk is the one exception, and this only for
young children.)

Nitrogenous.

X on-Nitrogenous.

Veal,

Beef,

Peas,

Pat Mutton,
Cow’s milk,

H uman Milk, -
Wheaten Flour,
Oatmeal,
Potatoes,

Rice,

1

1

. 1
i-7

1

2-3

1

1

2.7

3-o

1

1

1

1

1

o •—

o- /

4.6

8.6
12.3

Of these foods only three have the necessary elements in anything
like the proportion required, viz. : — milk, flour, and oatmeal.
Milk contains, too much nitrogen for old people, but that makes
it all the more suitable for growing young* people. Oatmeal and
wheat flour have the advantage of being nearly balanced, and with
the addition of milk, lit would be possible to. live on either of them
for long periods of hard work. The excellent and time honoured
porridge of Scotland does not ag*ree with some (young and old).
When this is. the case it may be corrected by longer cooking* or by
mixing wheat or barley meal with the oatmeal. If it cannot be
taken in. any form, bread and milk is the best substitute.

I would now direct vour attention to the economic value of food.

The economic value of food is decided in the main by three
considerations, viz. : —

(1) The amount of digestible nourishment it contains.

(2) The amount of energy it contributes to. the human body.

(3) Its actual cost in money.

First , then, with regard to the amount of nourishment in a food.
This depends upon two factors — (a) the proportion of water it
-contains and (b' the composition of the remainder. All natural
foods, however dry they appear, contain more or less water. But
though water is of vital necessity it is not generally classed as a

DR. PARKER STEWART ON FACTS AND FALLACIES ABOUT FOODS. 63

food ; it yields no energy to the body. The nourishing value is
decided solely by the amount and composition of the dlry food
material which the article of diet contains.

Foods differ greatly in their content of water, but it may be
taken as a general rule that animal foods, root crops and green
vegetables contain the most water, while cereal and pulse foods
in the ripe and dry condition contain the least. It follows, therefore,
that weight for weight food of the latter classes contains more
nourishment than the former. The large quantity of water and
the relatively small amount of actual food contained in the first
three classes is surprising. This is shown in the following diagram,
which gives the water and dry food material in a pound weight of
each food.

Water.

Dry Food.

Beef,

-

11.35 oz-

4.65 oz.

Mutton,

-

12

4

Ham,

-

9.6

6.4

Herrings, -

-

1 x. 6

4.4

Milk,

-

13-9

2. 1

Potatoes, -

-

12.6

3-4

Turnips,

-

1 4- 43

i-57

Peas (fresh),

-

12.5

3-5

Cabbage, -

-

14.7

1-3

On the other hand, the contrast in the case of cereal and other dry
foods is very marked as shown by the following : —

Water.

Dry Food

Bread,

-

-

4.5 oz.

1 1.5 oz.

Oatmeal, -

-

-

1.17

14.83

Maize,

-

-

2

I4

Peas ; dried),

-

-

1.9

14. 10

Butter Beans,

-

-

i. 65

14-35

In so far, therefore, as one can substitute foods of the latter group
for the more costly animal foods it is economical in every sense to
do so.

Having ascertained the amount of dry material in a food it is
then necessary to consider its composition. To be nourishing a
diet must provide certain well recognised classes of substances or
“ Food-stuffs,” which fulfil different purposes in the human body.
These I have already enumerated as Poirteins, Carbo-hydrates,
Fats, Salts (and Water). Of these food-stuffs some are more essential
than others, and I have already stated that, while fats and starch
are to a large extent interchangeable, this is not so in the case of

64 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

porteins. The variety and proportion of the food-stuff s in different
food materials vary widely. In some, such as flesh meat, fish, and
most animal foods, only three classes are present, viz., proteins,
fats, and mineral salts, the carbo-hydrates (sugar and starch) being'
absent or negligible (see diagram of Composition of Foods). On
the other hand, in most vegetable foods all four classes are
represented, though as a rule the protein or flesh-forming class
is scanty, while the starch and sugar class is very abundant. As
I have already said there are exceptions to this rule; wheat, oats,
maize, and the pulse foods being well proportioned, except the last
which is somewhat poor in fat.

Second . The amount of energy it contributes to the human
body. The energy value, or “ power,” of nearly all foods has been
carefully ascertained, both by feeding' experiments and by scientific
determinations of a simple kind which do not involve feeding. Of
the essential food-stuffs previously mentioned, fats yield weight for
weight, the most energy to the body. Thus the energy value of
i oz. of fat is 263.6 units or calories, of 1 oz. dry protein food, 111.2
units, and of 1 oz. of carbo-hvdrate food, the same. It is, therefore,
economical to’ introduce fats into the dietary as far as they can be
utilized. The mineral salts add no energy to the body. Knowing
the composition of food materials, it is possible at any time to
calculate the quantities of each which will yield the same energy
when consumed in the body. The following table shows the energy
equivalents of 1 lb. of various articles.

Energy Value

Beef (lean),

Bacon,

Butter (Dripping, 4607),
Cheese,

Eggs,

Milk,

Herring,

Cod,

Oatmeal,

Bread,

Rice,

Lentils,

Potato,

Turnip.

FROM I LB. OF

-

-

615

uni

-

2900

1 y

-

-

3604

y y

-

-

1950

» 1

-

-

720

y y

-

-

325

y y

-

-

660

y y

-

-

325

y y

-

-

1S60

y y

-

-

1 150

y y

-

-

1630

y y

-

-

1600

y y

-

-

310

y y

-

-

L37

y *

In the next table is a list of the energy equivalents of 1 lb. of
Beef.

DR. PARKER STEWART ON FACTS AND FALLACIES ABOUT FOODS. 65

LB. OZ.

LB.

OZ.

Butter, -

0

23.

Bread, -

0

7

Bacon (Mixed),

0

3t

Ham (lean),

O

Oatmeal,

0

5i

Eggs,

O

I3f

Cheese,

0

5f

Herring, -

O

*5

Lentils, -

0

6

Peas (fresh),

1

5§

Butter Beans, -

0

6

Potatoes, -

I

9s

Rice,

0

6

Milk,

I

14!

Peas (dried),

0

6|

Cod,

I

Ml

ow while 2§ oz. of

Butter

, or

3§ oz. of Bacon,

or St oz. of

Oatmeal, or i lb. 9 oz. of Potatoes, etc., have the energy equivalent
of 1 lb. of Beef, it is not to be supposed that these quantities of
the different foods are equivalent to each other in all respects..
They are only so when, and in so far as, they can be included in
the daily diet without disturbing the proper proportion of protein,
fat, and carbo-hydrate food. Energy equivalents of different foods
are under these circumstances of equal nourishing value as well.

The third consideration which determines the value of a food —
assuming it to be digestible and nourishing — is its relative cost in
money. By that is meant the amount of energy and nourishing
material obtainable for a given sum of money when used to purchase
different foods. I may say here that the Atwater standard of food
energy required for moderate work for one day is 3500 units or
calories.

The following table shows the relative value of foods by cal¬
culating the cost of a single diet to meet this standard.

Lbs. Cost in 1919.

s. D.

Oatmeal,

-

-

2

0

Potatoes,

-

-

1 1

0 1 1

Peas,

-

z 8

1 2!

Cheese,

-

-

H

2 8£

Bacon,

-

-

H

3 0

Herring,

-

-

5 h

3 2h

Separated Milk,

-

-

2\ gallons

3 §

Milk,

-

-

9^ pints

3 ui

Beef,

-

-

5

9 2

Cod,

-

-

1 1

12 10

Eggs (40— 20Z.)

-

-

5

18 4

The relative food values may also be illustrated by the w7 eight
and cost of various articles required to do a specified amount of
work, in this case the raising of a man (140 lbs.) to a height of
10,000 feet.

66 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

Ozs.

Cost.

Ozs.

Cost,

d.

s.

D.

Flour,

-

21

3f

Dripping,

8.9

0 IO|:

Rice,

-

21.5

^ 1

04

Cheese,

- 18.5

i Si

Oatmeal, -

-

20.5

rl

02

Butter,

1 1. 1

i 8|

Bread,

-

37-5

r- 3

04

Cabbage,

- 19^-3

2

0

Potato,

-

81. 1

65

Milk, -

128.3

2 8

Peasmeal,

-

21.4

^ 1
/ 2'

Beef,

56-5

8 3

Margarine,

-

11. 9

Si

Eggs, -

46

10 65

It will be noticed that the smallest quantity is in dripping-, con¬
sisting as it does almost entirely of fat at a cost of iojd. , followed
by margarine and butter at a higher cost. Oatmeal, which requires
20ijr oz. as compared with 21 oz. of flour and 2i\ oz. of rice, has,
owing to the increase of price, to drop from the position of being
the cheapest of the cereal foods — a position it had always previously
held. The quantity of cabbage required is absolutely ridiculous.
A man, to do the work, would require to eat about a stone of
cabbage, and who is sufficient for that? Of course it must be
understood that this table merely gives the theoretical quantities
that would produce the force. It is obviously impossible to digest
a stone of cabbage or 5 lbs. of potatoes in addition to subsistence
diet ; nor would it be healthy to take large amounts of unbalanced
food. I have already remarked that oatmeal and flour have the
advantage of being nearly balanced, and with milk added make a
diet with which it is possible to do hard work.

Another illustration of the relative food values is shown by
comparing the energy equivalents of a glass of milk and their cost.

Oz.

Cost.

Oz. Cost.

d.

d.

Bacon,

-

-

1

if

Bread,

-

-

ol 1

^2 3

Cheese,

-

-

if

if

Oatmeal,

-

-

if I

Herring,

-

-

4f

2

Potato,

-

-

9 f

Beef,

-

-

43

6|

Peas,

-

-

2 $

Cod,

-

-

- Si

71

Beans,

-

-

T 7 3

1Ttr 4

Eggs, -

-

-

4

1 1

Stout,

-

-

20 8

Stout is here represented in its most favourable lig'ht. Of the
180 units of energy-- which two glasses yield, 165 come from.alcohoh
But alcohol although it has some of the properties of a food is not
harmless ; the protein in two glasses of stout is less than^Q-oz., while
in a glass of milk it is J oz.

Looked at in whatever way we like, the same conclusion is
reached, that the cereal and pulse foods are the cheapest, those
of animal origin the dearest.

Supposing that we have in these various foods got the requisite
quantity of C. and N., is anything else needed to keep the human

DR. PARKER STEWART ON FACTS AND FALLACIES ABOUT FOODS. 6 J

machine in a healthy state? There are salts needed — common salt
and other salts,. These are contained in all food-situffs. Thus,,
beef contains 5 per cent, of saline material; peas, 2.5 per cent.;
rice, \ per cent.; and so on. We may dismiss this part of the
subject with the remark that we get these salts readily in the food
itself or by the universal practice of adding salt to> please the palate.
Then we need water. The daily quantity we require is about 3
pints, and as all the foods we take contain water we simply require
that quantity which will make up the deficiency in the food.

These, then, are some physiological facts concerning foods.-
We are, however, face to face with this fact — that human beings
not only require what is necessary, but crave for what is pleasant,
for what supplies a change, for what gives variety. There is a
universal demand for some liquid substance, which not only meets
the requirement of the body by introducing water, but which will
also meet the demand for variety. This brings us to the question
of drinks. Leaving oiut milk, which is essentially a food-stuff, the
drinks in common use are tea, coffee, and cocoa on the one hand,
and alcoholic beverages on the other. Lemonade, soda water, etc.,
are only to be considered as varieties of water. Do they supply any
nourishing material and, if so, does it supply anything else which
acts beneficially or harmfully?

A cup of tea (apart from added sugar and cream) contains 21
grains of material — qf grains mineral matter and 1 6f grains organic
matter. This quantity of organic material is not worth consider¬
ing as a food stuff at all. But it is important because the chief
ingredient of this, organic material is a substance called Them,
the amount of which in the cup is equivalent to 1 grain of nitrogen.
It cannot, therefore, be considered as a food-stuff. What then is
its use? It stimulates, it relieves or removes feelings of fatigue, and
as a stimulant has this great advantage that under ordinary circum¬
stances. it leaves no feeling of depression. It is not food, however.
If we take tea in order to fill out an otherwise deficient diet we
delude ourselves — we are simply by a false stimulation endeavour¬
ing to mask the fact we are not supplying to' our bodies what they
need for their work or for their waste of tissue. Tea, then, is useful
to' us as a stimulant provided always we supply with it the energy
yielding and tissue repairing substance. Coffee is exactly on the
same basis — it also contains their, but its nutritive power is
practically nil. Cocoa occupies an entirely different position. It
consists of about one half of fat, and as such yields material for the
liberation of energy. A cup of the beverage cocoa shows it to contain
- — Water, 87.5 per cent. ; Protein, nearly 1 per cent. ; Fat, 1.5 per
cent ; and Carbo-hydrates, 10 per cent. — scarcely half the amount
of protein and fat there is in milk, but double the quantity of
carbo-hvdirate matter.

TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

Now the one fallacy, which you will have noted in the course
of the lecture, is that “ meat is an essential.” I am no advocate of
vegetarianism but, nevertheless, we eat more flesh than is necessary
or desirable. In this respect we are not so great beef eaters as
our neighbours the English, but we tend in that direction. Oat¬
meal particularly among our town inhabitants is more and more
being cast into the background, and this is unfortunate, for if
there is one kind of food — cheap and nutritious — which satisfies
the needs of our climate it is oatmeal. I do not refer to that
concoction which you get served up in London hotels, but to the
■“ hale some parr itch, chief of Scotia’s food.”

Flesh is more nutritious if eaten raw than when cooked, but not
so digestible. Some people imagine that the white of an egg is more
easily digested in its raw state, but that is not so ; if it is swallowed
in its ordinary state it is much longer in being digested than when
cooked, though, if whipped, it is so divided that it affords a large
surface for contact with the gastric juice and it is therefore
quickly attacked. Cooking further entails a loss of “ vitamines. ”
Vitamines are present in minute quantities in nearly all foods in
their natural condition, but may be removed or destroyed
in the process of manufacture. It removed, the diet will cause
disease. Thus Beri-beri is caused by eating white rice from
which the vitamine layer has been rubbed off. Scurvy and rickets
are likewise partly the result of lack of vitamines. Peas, lentils,
potatoes, greens, meal, milk, fresh meat, lime juice, etc., all con¬
tain vitamines, and by a varied diet, therefore, we can secure enough
even when they are absent or removed from some of the food
materials which compose the diet.

It is popularly supposed that fish, of all the foods, is the most
essential for brain work. Now fish cannot be said to contain a
high percentage of phosphorus and are not, as so* commonly
believed, especially good as a brain food.

Another fallacy with regard to food concerns milk, and in this
connection I feel I cannot do better than repeat what I said two
years ago when giving a lecture on Infant Mortality. “ Milk is a
fluid and, being a fluid, they cannot conceive how milk can be a
‘ food,’ and a nutritious food, nor can they be made to believe that
milk which contains all the elements of an infant’s dietary is a
complete food. They are obsessed with the thought that what baby
requires in order to thrive is something solid. Something ‘ solid
appeals to them, and milk, which contains all the essentials, is
supplemented by something ‘ solid,’ which varies according to the
number of visits and gratuitous advices from neighbours. These
neighbours have themselves had many children and therefore feel
well qualified to give advice, though they fail to see the difference
between having had, and having brought up, children.’

DR. I ARKER STEWART ON FACTS AND FALLACIES ABOUT FOODS. 69

While on the subject of milk I would like to draw your -attention
to the value of skimmed miik. There can be no doubt that we
under-estimate the value of this food. It contains a high proportion
of excellent food-stuff in the form of casein, and protein foods, as
a class, are the most costly of all. Casein, taking it all round, is
probably the most useful of all proteins.

For a long time people looked askance at Margarine. I admit
that in former years marg'arine was not very palatable, but the
same can be hardly held to-day. Its value as an energy food is
undoubted, those brands containing the higher percentage of
animal fat having the higher nutritive value. As with porridge,
so with margarine. Some people say they cannot look at it. It
upsets their stomach. This may be so, but barring invalids, and
even in their case it is the exception, the cases are rare.. I have
known ladies, who said they could not tolerate margarine in any
shape or form, partake of it and enjoy it under the impression that
they were eating the best fresh butter.

Of all the alcoholic liquors, beer and stout, from the nutritive
point of view, are the most economical. Stout was, or is, a
favourite beverage for mothers on the mistaken idea that nothing
was better for improving the condition, or increasing the quantity
of milk for the feeding of their baby. When we consider the cost,
and the fact that the nourishing material iis very small — i lb.
weight of stout contains about 35 grains of protein and 60 gxains
of carbo-hydrate food — it is quickly gathered how7 fallacious is
this idea. A tablespoonful of oatmeal in the shape of gruel would
not only prove less costly but be more beneficial. Any energy
value of stout or beer is to be attributed to. the alcohol.

In conclusion I would summarize.

The chief feature in animal foods are : —

(1) The large proportion of water.

(2) The negligible quantity of carbo-hydrates.

(3) The high percentage of proteins.

(4) The relatively low energy value.

Animal foods, are, however, well digested; animal protein to the
extent of 97 per cent, is absorbed and utilized ; of animal fat, 95
per cent.

Cereal foods contain : —

(1) Very (Bit tie water,

(2) As a rule have proteins, fats, carbo-hydrates, and salts well

represented,

(3) And a high energy value as well as being economical.

Their proteins are less completely digested, viz., 85 per cent., as
also are their fats, but the carbo-hydrates are utilised to the extent
of 98 per cent. Cereal foods should be thoroughly cooked.

F

70

TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

Pulse foods in the fresh green state contain a high percentage
of water, but in the dried condition this is much reduced : —

(1) They .are almost as dry as cereals.

(2) They are very rich in protein, 82.5 per cent, of which is

utilized. Can therefore be profitably used as substitutes
for animal food.

(3) The proportion of carbo-hydrates is good, but that of fat is

low. This latter has to be borne in mind in serving and
cooking.

(4) The energy value is high.

With reference to fish — of course, an animal food — the edible
portion contains a large proportion of water, and more gelatine
than in flesh meat. Owing to the latter fact there is a considerable
loss in the boiling of fish, unless the water be made use of for
soup or in some other way. The energy value varies with the
proportion of fat being low in the cod and whiting and high in
the herring, mackerel, and salmon. A pound weight of the edible
portion of herring is more than equivalent to 1 lb. of beef.

Roots and Green Vegetables all contain : —

(1) A great deal of water.

(2) Root Crops, next to the cereals, possess the largest propor¬

tion of Carbo-hydrates of human food.

(3) The quantity of fats and proteins is small.

(4) Mineral matter, as a rule, is high.

(5) They are a valuable source of “ vitamines ” which are

essential for healthy nutrition

Vegetable foods, as a class, are less completely digested and
absorbed into the system than animal foods.

In conclusion, let me say that it is not, however, to be under¬
stood, that the mere supply of enough protein and energy is all
that is required. The food must not only be sufficient and whole¬
some ; it must also be well prepared and attractive. The value
of attractiveness in food is not sufficiently appreciated. It has,
however, been proved by experiment, that a food which is relished
promotes a better flow of gastric juice and is better digested than
one for which there is little appetite. The same applies to the
serving of food; neatness, tidiness, comfort, and absence of worry
at meal times all assist in stimulating the digestive organs to get
the greatest amount of nourishment out of the food provided.
Food which is enjoyed does more good than food which is not
appetising.

Variety in meals not only assists towards the same end but
does more. It ensures a supply of all the chemical substances
which are essential for nourishment.

W. BARCLAY ON A FORGOTTEN PERTHSHIRE BOTANIST.

71

VI. — A Forgotten Perthshire Botanist — Robert Macnab .

By Mr. W. Barclay.

(Read 9th April, 1920.)

The facts which I have been able to gather concerning Robert
Macnab are very meagre indeed, and relate only to a very short
period of his life, that extending from March, 1836, to October,

i842-

Of his previous and of his subsequent career I have not been
able to learn anything. What leads me to rescue his name from
the darkness into which it bad fallen and to shed some little light
upon it, is the fact that during the period I have mentioned he
contributed to the Perthshire Courier a series of notes on the
Botany of Perthshire, which seem to me to be of value and to
be worth re-printing in our Transactions. From these notes we
learn that he had projected a Flora of Perthshire and was
investigating and recording the flora of different localities in
preparation for the work. When we first meet with him in the
columns of the Courier in 1836 he occupied the post of gardener
at Kinfauns Castle. From June, 1837, to April, 1839, n'° note
from his pen appears, and at some time during these two years
he must have left Kinfauns. There is but the one contribution
in 1839, but on isit October, 1840, the notes again become more
or less regular. On 19th August, 1841, he first signs his name,
R. M‘Nab, and dates his note from Ruthven House. Where
he was employed from the time lie left Kinfauns till entering at
Ruthven House we do not know, but probably the latter portion
of that interval was spent at or near Bridge of Earn. Fie must
have left Ruthven House at Martinmas, 1841, as the remainder of
his notes, up to the last one which appeared in January, 1842,
are dated from Perth. Up to his entering at Ruthven House the
notes are purely botanical, but from that time onwards they quite
change their character and became in the main, first horticultural
and subsequently agricultural. He had evidently given up, or at
least postponed, the plan of publishing a Flora of Perthshire, and
instead, we have the following advertisement which appeared in
the Courier on the 13th, and again on the 20th October, 1842 :

“ Just Published
By Robert M‘Nab

The North British Cultivator — comprising the Vegetable,
Fruit and Forcing Gardens; Agriculture, Botany, Basket-making,
&c. Dissertations on the Choicest Vegetables, Fruits, Flowers,
Grains, Grasses, &c. , that have been most successfully cultivated

72 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

and adapted to the different soils in Britain ; the diseases that have
affected Wheat, Potato, Onion, &c. , and the cures that have
proved most successful in counteracting them explained, their
(respective nutritive and medicinal qualities. Completed in one
Viol., omo, of 400 pages. Price reduced at the suggestion of
friends to 5/-, with a view to bring it within the reach of all
classes. This work is allowed by competent judges to be the best
of the kind hitherto published in point of utility, cheapness, brevity,
and plainness of diction.

Sold by Messrs. Dewar & Richardson, Perth; Urquhart &
Middleton, Dundee; Wood, Newburgh; and Robertson, Blair¬
gowrie. October, 1842.”

I have never seen a copy of this work, nor have I been able
to learn any further particulars regarding the author.

The following are M‘Nab’s Notes as they appeared in the
j Courier , the lists of native plants in full, but the other matjtetl
sometimes considerably abridged where it appeared of no value.

31st March, 1836. — Linoaea borealis. This interesting plant
was first detected in Perthshire by Messrs. Brown & Campbell
on the estate of Kinfauns in the year 1816. Since that period a
considerable portion of the plantation, wherein the plant was
situated, having- been cut down, the plant was lost sight of until,
after many an anxious search, it was re-discovered in the summer
of 1835.

Botrychium lunaria (Moon wort) . This singular fugitive is to
be found plentifully on the much trodden North Inch of Perth.

14th April, 1836. — Vicia sylvatica. Allowed to be the most
beautiful climber of the pea tribe. This plant may be found in the
woods of Invermay in great perfection, flowering in July and
August.

Betonica officinalis (Wood Betony) has medicinal qualities of
great repute. To be found with the preceding.

5th May, 1836. — Hill of Kinnoull. Along the middle of the
Hill the following reputed medicinal plants may be found : — Conium
maculatum (Hemlock), Hyocyamus nigcr (Henbane), Cyno-
glossum (Hound’s tongue), Verbascum (Mullein), Solatium (Bitter¬
sweet), Daucus (Wild Carrot), Origanum (Marjoram), Scrophularia
(Figwort), Digitalis (Foxglove), and Mercurialis (Dog’s Mercury).

In the crevices of the rocks Cheiranthus (Wallflower), abun¬
dant ; Grammitiis (Spleen wort), sparingly.

On the summit, Astragalus hypoglottis (Mountain Milkwort),
and Cistus Heliantlhemum (Rock Rose).

7th July, 1836. — Geranium sylvaticum, var. compactum.
We lately had the pleasure of gathering this beautiful and striking
variety in the Den of Gray, Forfarshire. Sambucus ebulus (Dwarf
Eld'er or Danewoirt). With the exception of this plant no genus of

W. BARCLAY ON A FORGOTTEN PERTHSHIRE BOTANIST.

73

trees belonging- to the Flora of Britain embraces herbaceous species.
Found along- with the preceding. In the Park of Gray are some
admirable examples of exotic trees.

25th August, 1836. — Pyrola uniflora. We were most agreeably
surprised to find this exceedingly rare plant in the neighbourhood
of Perth so abundant that there is little fear of it ever being
extirpated.

Note. — In our Flora Perthensis which we have hi contemplation to publish
soon, the particular station of this most rare plant will, of course, be given.

Oxycoccos paiustris. it grows in a marsh near the Earn on
the estate of Moncreiffe.

Eriophorum angustifolium and E. polystachion are common
in bogs.

29th September, 1836. — Flora of Glenfarg — Ferns. Polypod¬
ium vulgare ; P. Phegopteris ; P. Dryopteris ; Rlechnum boreale ;
Asplenium Filix-femina ; Asplenium Pmta-Muraria ; A. Adiantum-
nigrum ; A. Trichomanes ; Pteriis aquilina ; Aspidium Thelypteris ;
A. aculieatum ; A. dilatatum ; A. Filix-mas ; and A. fragile :

15th June, 1837. — From the severity of the weather during last
winter and spring, several exotic plants, that were considered
acclimatised, perished. We may remark that at Kinfauns Castle
Acacia dealbata and Ribes speciosa have stood “ the pelting of
the pitiless storm,” and have flowered profusely.

The broad-leaved ivy, commonly called Irish Ivy, is a native of
Madeira, and from thence was accidentally introduced to this country
along with an importation of orange trees ; thus it was first detected
in a very young state by the acute. Mr. Brown, late of the Perth
N ursery.

4th April, 1839. — In botanical pursuits we have had the pleasure
of travelling with Cunningham and Douglas, names, alas ! no
more, — -save from the important discoveries of these enterprising
travellers, enriching this country with valuable exotics, which,
with botany will immortalise their names.

From the number of rare plants inhabiting the Lochs of Cluny,
Marllee, and their boundaries, an excursion to them will be found
peculiarly interesting.

The following plants may be found in and by these Lochs : —
Hippurus vulgaris; Veronica montana ; Utricularia vulgare; Asperula
odorata ; Plantago maritima ; Potamogeton, all the British species
except Potamogeton lanceolata ; Radiola millegrana ; Myosotis repens ;
Menyanthes trifoliata, Lysimachia nemorum ; Lobelia Dortmana ; Viola
paiustris; Gentiana campestris ; CEnanthe fistulosa ; Parnassia
paiustris; Drosera longifolia ; Convallaria verticillata (Den of Rechip) ;
Triglochin palustre ; Ti’ientalis europaea ; Vaccinium Oxycoccos ;
Butomus umbellatus ; Pyrola secunda ; Saxifraga aizoides ; Stellaria
scapigera ; Sedum album, Ly thrum salicaria ; Rosa Doniana ; Comarum
palustre, Nymphaea alba; Nuphar lutea ; Stratiotes aloides ;
Ranunculus hederaceus ; Ranunculus lingua ; Caltha montana ;

74

TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

Melampyrum sylvaticum ; Subularia aquatic a ; Lotus tenuissimus
Inula Helenium ; Orchis latifolia ; Gymnadenia conopsea ; Habenaria
viridis ; Habenaria alba ; Habenaria bifolia ; Carex remota : C. limosa ;
Litorella lacustris ; Ceratophyllum demersum ; Myriophyllum spicatum ;
Myrica gale; Hydrocaris Morsus-ranae ; Pte? is C7'ispa ; Ophioglossum
vulgatum ; Isoetes lacustris ; Pilularia globulifera. Those marked
Italics are the rarer.

17th September, 1840. — (We are happy to be able to conclude
from the following notices with which we have been favoured that
our intelligent Botanical friend has not lost sight of his intended
work on the indigenous plants of Perthshire, and that he is receiving
very distinguished assistance in the materials for his collections. —
Ed. “ Perth Courier.”)

Rubus arcticus — On the north side of a little hill near the
source of the Tilt, Perthshire. Pvrola secunda. — By the falls of
Pooltarf, Glentilt, Perthshire. R.

1 st October, 1840. — Scolopendrium officinarum (Hart’s
tongue). This beautiful fern, which more resembles a tropical
production than one of our indigenous plants, and may well be
regarded as a triumph of botanical research, has lately been dis¬
covered by Col. M. Belshes. Inver may, in a rocky dell not many
miles from Perth, where situated inaccessible, it inhales the refresh¬
ing spray of a beautiful cataract, its graceful appearance forming
a striking object to the eye of the beholder. The station will be
given in the Flora Perthensis. R.

29th October, 1840. — The Hill of Birnam. — Col. Belshes has
discovered the following ferns, Allosurus crlspus ; Asplenium
septentrionaie ; A. Viride ; ■ Cystopteris dentata ; and one from the
Den of Rechip, seemingly a non-descript.

The Hill of Moncrieffe has frequently been traversed by botan¬
ists, but with the exception of Campanula uniflora (a very doubtful
species), nothing uncommon has been found, until lately Sir Thomas
Monicreiffe discovered Ceterach officinarum, perhaps the moist
northern station in Scotland for this rare plant, which has hitherto'
been known to exist only in the Carse of Gowrie range in a truly
wild state. R.

ATI. — Zannichellia palustris (Linn.) in Perthshire.

By J. R. Matthews, M.A. , F.L.S.

(Read 9th April, 1920.)

The following notes are suggested by the discovery of
\Z an inch ell i a palustris — the Horned Pondweed — in a small loch
situated about a mile west of Dunning and known locally as Keltie
Loch.

J. R. MATTHEWS ON ZANNICHELLIA PALUSTRIS.

/O

The plant, though common in England and widely distributed
in Scotland, is exceedingly irare in Perthshire. The only known
station within the county, apart from the present record, is the
White Moss, which is situated about two- miles west of Dunning,
where it was found by Dr. Buchanan White and Mr. A. Sturrock
in the year 1883. Specimens by these collectors are preserved in
the Herbarium of the Perth Museum, There are no further
examples of the plant from Perthshire and, so far as my knowledge
goeis, it has not been found anywhere in the county since the date
of the original discovery in 1883 until last year (1919) when its
occurrence in Keltic Loch came under my observation.

During many successive summers I have explored the White
Moiss Loch in search of Zannichellia and other aquatic plants and,
although usually limited to hand-dredging, 1 was able on one
occasion to secure a boat and I then made as careful a survey of
the lake flora as 1 could. But I did not succeed in re-discovering
Zannichellia, although, of course, it by no means follows that the
plant is now extinct at the White Moss. It is necessary to be
extremely cautious in coming to any decision regarding the question
as to whether a particular species has become extinct in a certain
locality. There is no doubt that plants do become exterminated
owing to competition of other, perhaps more potent, species or
to changes in the general conditions of the habitat in which they
occur. But in the case of an undisturbed lake like the White Moss,
it seems unlikely that the true aquatics should die out so long as
there is a fairly large expanse of open water. It is true that
topographical changes are slowly taking place at the White Moss
owing to silting and to various biotic influences, and it is con¬
ceivable that conditions might arise under which a delicate aquatic
plant like Zannichellia might succumb. I have not given up hope
of finding it, however, as it only three years ago since I re¬
discovered Utricularia vulgaris at the White Moss (also' first found
here in 1883) after repeated failures to find it during the past eleven
or twelve years.

The appearance of Zannichellia palustris in Keltie Loch,
although not adding much to the range of the plant’s distribution
in Perthshire, raises one of those little problems in plant dispersal
where one can do little more than suggest a possible solution.
Interest in the present case centres round the history of Keltie Loch.
There is no doubt that at one time the nature of the area justified
its name, but ultimately the - “ loch ” became nothing more than
a quaking bog supporting a dense carpet of vegetation composed
largely of Potentilla palustris L., Menyanthes trifoliata L., Carex
ampullacea, Good, and Equisetum limosum L,, with an admixture
of a good many other common marsh plants. The area extended
to about three acres, and in dry weather one could walk over this

76 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATUR \L SCIENCE.

bog' in comparative safety. There were no pools of open water
in which true aquatics could exist. A certain amount of water
found its way under the carpet of vegetation, entering the area
at its western end and finding an outlet at the east side by way
of a deep ditch which had been constructed long ago for the purpose
ot draining the area. Early in the spring of 1913 the outlet was
barricaded and the marshy area was allowed to become flooded.
During the summer the marsh plants grew luxuriantly, in no way
retarded by the waters that had collected over the original surface
of the bog'. The plants were cut down as far as possible by means
of a long-handled, double-bladed scythe worked from a flat-
bottomed boat. But the underground portions of the plants were
not removed by this process, and during the month of September
huge cushions of vegetable fibre commenced to rise here and there
to the surface of the water. These were cut up into manageable
blocks and floated to the side. The same thing happened during
the three succeeding summers, and each season the operation of
removing the floating mass had to be repeated. In this way the
great accumulation of roots and rhizomes of the former bog plants
was ultimately removed. The area now presented itself as a sheet
of water some four acres in extent, ten or twelve feet in depth near
the east side and gradually shallowing towards the west and
south sides.

Aquatic plants almost immediately made their appearance in
the open water, while marsh plants soon regained a foothold around
the margins. Water Milfoil and various pondweeds were the first
to appear, but as I cannot state the exact order of arrival, I shall
give the list as I compiled it last summer. The aquatics are con¬
fined mainly to the -shallower water at the west end of the loch and
though some of the species extend into deeper water they are at
present less common in the latter. Myriophyllum spicatum L. is
dominant, and associated with it, forming an abundant under¬
growth, is CalUt riche autumnalis L. Potamogeton pusillus L.
occurs in large quantity at the south-west side where the water is
about one foot deep, and it was here also that Zannichellia palustris
was first noticed. Later, it was found in greater abundance on
open mud under nine or ten inches of water. Potamogeton
heterophyUus Sehreb. is frequent: while P. obtusifolius M. et K.
is occasional. Polygonum amphibium L. forms, here and there a
characteristic floating-leaf association. Nitella opaca A g. is rare
and occurs only in deeper water.

So far as I have observed, these are all the aquatic plants that
have as yet established themselves in the recently-constructed
Kell ie Loch. Tlhe actual number of species is not large, but time
and further search will doubtless add to the number. Most of
those that have made their appearance have spread with remarkable

J. R. MATTHEWS ON ZANNICHELLIA PALUSTRIS.

77

rapidity, and in places it is impossible to row a boat owing to* the
dense growth especially of Myriophyllum.

It is probable that water-fowl are mainly responsible for the
introduction of the aquatics into Keltie Loch. There is a con¬
siderable body of evidence to show that birds on migration do not
carry seed's, or other objects adhering to their feathers, legs or
feet, and it has been shown also- that birds migrate on empty
stomachs ; but on short flights — e.g. between the White Moss
-and Keltie Loch — they are probably not so particular in their
habits, and since six of the eight plants mentioned above are
known to occur at the White Moss, it is perhaps not unreasonable
to suppose that this loch may have provided the source of the
aquatic flora now appearing in Keltie Loch. As already stated,
Zannichellia has not been re-discovered at the White Moss, but if
the theory that the plant has been recently introduced into Keltie
Lo-ch from the White Moss be correct, it follows that this species
still exists in the latter.

As is well known, many aquatic plants reproduce themselves
readily by vegetative means. They often develop roots freely at
the nodes, so that a small portion of a plant may be sufficient to
start a new colony if introduced into a fresh area. Perhaps the
most notable example of the rapid spread of an aquatic is the now
familiar American water-weed — Elodea canadensis — which, since
its first appearance in Britain in Leicestershire about seventy years
ago, has spread to nearly all the lakes and waterways of the
country. That this has taken place entirely by vegetative propaga¬
tion is practically certain since the female plant only is common
in this country, the male plant being known from one or two
localities only. One must not, of course, entirely exclude the
possibility of bird-carried seeds reaching Keltic Loch, and it may
be that some of the aquatics which have appeared there have been
introduced in this way. Those interested in the means of plant
dispersal will find a series of interesting papers on the subject by
the Rev. E. A. Woodruffe-Peaoock in the Selborne Magazine ,
1918, and a contribution by the same author to- the Journal of
Ecology , 1918, deals largely with the same topic.

Some observations of my own may be worth recording. I had
been following the slow conversion of a small open loch, situated
on the O chi Is, into a bog by the gradual encroachment of the
marginal vegetation proceeding from the west side. The plants
chiefly concerned in this centripetal invasion were Equisetum
limosum, Menyanthes trifoliata and Car ex ampullae ea. They
advanced in the order named, the first to take possession of the
water being the Equisetum. 'I his was followed by the bogbean
whose long, floating, intertwining stems formed a fairly close
covering of vegetation over the water. The sedge, giving rise to

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its characteristic tussock formation, followed, ultimately replacing
the bog-bean. The area provided a very clear example of the
successional development of vegetation in an aquatic habitat. The
loch is frequented by large numbers of water-birds which nest
amongst the tussocks of the sedge. In one place, the Carex has
been practically exterminated owing to the constant trampling to
which it has been subjected by the birds. On this comparatively
bare area of organic debris, situated about 50 yards from the lake
margin and reached only by running some risk of sinking into a
saturated mass of vegetable remains, the following unexpected
plants were observed : — Poa annuo. 1 L. in considerable quantity,
Oat (several plants), Polygonum Persicaria L. (several), P.
aviculare (several), P. lap athi folium L. (one plant), Planiago
major L. (one plant), Crepis virens L. (one plant), Holcus lanatus
L. (one plant), Cynosurus cristatus L. (one plant), and Lolium
perenne L. (one plant). Growing over an old nest of a water-hen
were Cerastium mil g alum L. and Galium saxatile L. It seems not
improbable that the majority of these plants had come from seed
Introduced to this unusual habitat from neighbouring- cultivated
ground by birds, possibly ducks. The two plants mentioned last
had almost certainly been introduced with pieces of dead twigs of
g-orse gathered from the hill-side by water-hens for nest-building
purposes.

These remarks are rather a digression, but they are offered in
order to draw attention to an interesting aspect of Field Botany
too often forgotten or ignored by many plant collectors.

To return to Zannichellia palustris. This interesting water-
plant should be looked for in Perthshire, since it seems unlikely
that it should be confined to so limited a range within the county
such as the known records suggest. In Scotland the plant is
reported in Top. Bot. and Supp. from vice-counties : — 72 Dumfries,
74 Wigton, 75 Ayr, 76 Renfrew, 77 Lanark, 79 Selkirk, 80 Rox¬
burgh, 81 Berwick, 82 Haddington, 83 Edinburgh, 86 Stirling,
87 W. Perth, 88 M. Perth, 9c Forfar, 92 S. Aberdeen, 97 Wester¬
ness, 101 Cantire, 103 M. Ebudes, 106 E. Ross, 111 Orkney.
Mr. Bennett informs me that the following have to be added : — 93
N. Aberdeen, no Hebrides and 112 Shetland. The record for
87 West Perth is based on specimens found in Clackmannan which
by Watson is included in W. Perth.

Zannichellia palustris Linn, is considered an aggregate species
by many authors and, like many other “ Linnean species ” that
have been critically examined, numerous varieties and forms have
been described some of which have been accorded specific rank.
The plant was described by Linnaeus in Sp. PL ed. I., 1753, and
is retained as a single species by Graebner in his account in
Pflanzenreicli, iv., II., 1907, including, however, a number of

J. R. MATTHEWS ON ZANNICHEI LIA PALUSTRIS.

79

varieties and sub-varieties *of which the following have been
reported as occurring in Britain : — var. repens (Boenin.), var. major
(Boenn.) , var. polycarpa (Nolte), var. pedicellata Wahl, var.
radicans (Wall), sub var. gracilis Hagstrom and sub var.
gibberosa (Reichb.). There is considerable difference of opinion as
to the value of many of these forms as well as considerable con¬
fusion with regard to synonymy. In trying to arrive at a decision
on these matters I am greatly indebted to Mr. A. Bennett for
much kind assistance.

Z. repens was described by Boenninghausen in Prodr. FI.
Monast . , 1824, as a species, reduced to a variety by Koch in
Synops. ed. L, 1837. Similarly, Z. major Boenin. ex Reichb in
Moessl. Handb. ed. II., 1829, was reduced to varietal rank by
Koch, Synops. ed. I., 1837, Z. polycarpa (Nolte) dates from 1826
in Novit. FI. Holst ., but the name only is given without description.
The first descriptive account appears in Moessl. Handb. 1829. It
was reduced to a variety of Z. palustris L. by Prahl in Krit. FI.
von Schlesw. -Holst. II., 1890, and Graebner retains it as such,
but other authors, e.g. Babington, keep is as a species. The
plant from Kirbister Loch, Orkney, first noticed by Boswell- Sy me
in 1849 has been referred to var. tenuis sima Fries. The name
pedicellata was first used by Wahlenberg in 1821 as a variety of
iZ. palustris L. In 1826 Nolte used Z. maritime, for a similar plant,
but gave no description. The same plant was described with full
specific rank under the name Z. pedunculata Reichb. in Moessl.
Handb. 1829, and Z. pedicellata Fries. Novit. Mant. I., 1832, as
a species is the same plant. The really essential feature of this
plant which has given rise to so much confusion is the development
of a common peduncle which bears the cluster of pedicelled fruits.
Z. radicans Wall man dates from 1840 Bot. Notiser , but has since
been reduced to a variety. Var. gracilis Hagstrom in Baagoe in
Vidensk. medd. Nat. Foren. Kjoebenk , 1903, is presumably the
plant appearing in Hayward' s Bot. Pocket Bk. as var. gracilis
Druce. Var. gibberosa (Reichb.) is a slight variety crenate on
both dorsal and ventral sutures of the fruit.

The British List, therefore, may be drawn up as follows ; —

1. Z. palustris Linn,

(b) repens (Boenn.) Koch.

(c) major (Boenn.) Koch.

(d) gibberosa (Reichb.) Asch. et Graeb.

(e) gracilis Hagstrom.

2. Z. pedunculata, Reichb.

(Z. maritime (Nolte), Z. pedicellata Fries.

Z. palustris var. pedicellata Wahl.)

(b) radicans (Wall.) Asch. et Graeb.

3. Z. polycarpa (Nolte) in MSS.

(b) tenuis sima Fries.

8o TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

VIII. — History of the Strathmore Meteoric Fall of

3rd December, igij.

By Henry Coates, F.S.A.Soot.

(Read 14th December, 1917, and 8th February, 1918.)

On Monday, the 3rd of December, 1917, at a quarter past one
in the afternoon, there occurred in the Strathmore district of Perth¬
shire and Forfarshire one of the most remarkable meteoric falls
that has ever been recorded in the British Isles, and certainly the
most remarkable that has been recorded in Scotland.* The day was
a particularly bright one for the time of the year, with clear frosty
air, brilliant sunshine, and only a few cirrus and cumulus clouds
covering one-tenth of the sky. The thermometer, at nine in the
morning, had been standing at 20 deg. Fahr., and the barometer
at 30.240 inches, while the hydros cope showed 100 per cent, of
humidity in the atmosphere. The wind was from the S.W., with
force one, equal to two miles per hour. I mention these meteor¬
ological details, not that they have any connection with the pheno¬
menon itself, but on account of their bearing on visibility, and the
transmission of sound — important factors in neighing the evidence
received from various quarters.

Under these conditions, then, and about the time specified, a
visitor from space was seen to enter our atmosphere. I say “ seen,”
because, as will soon be evident, it is necessary to draw a sharp
distinction between what was seen and what was heard. The
appearance which presented itself in the heavens was that of a ball
of fire swiftly moving across the sky, leaving behind it a brilliantly
luminous trail, gradually becoming more attenuated, until it seemed
to end in a shower of sparks. (Plate 5). This, description I take from
the combined reports of several witnesses. One witness, viewing
it from a geographical distance of over 40 miles, describes it as
a truly magnificent spectacle, even as seen in the brilliant noonday
sunshine of a particularly bright day. The same phenomenon seen
on a dark night would have been awe-inspiring indeed. The head
of the comet-like body is described by some as being' of a fiery red
colour, but with a yellowish tinge in it, while the trail was of a pale
blue-green colour, shading off into what looked like red-hot sparks.
This body was seen from Aboyne, Aberdeenshire, in the north ;
from Hexham, Northumberlandshire, in England ; from St.
Boswells, Roxburghshire, in the south of Scotland; from Edin¬
burgh, Leith and Musselburgh ; from St. Andrews and Crossgates
in Fife ; and from Perth and Burrelton in the immediate neighbour¬
hood. So far as my information goes, only one person both saw

* See Appendix A.

H. COATES ON THE STRATHMORE METEORITE.

8l

the meteor and heard the subsequent detonation. I am not now,
of course, referring to the fall of the actual meteoric fragment,
which was witnessed by Mrs. Welsh as it reached the earth at
Carsie. What I am referring to is the incandescent mass as seen in
the high heavens before its disruption. The person who witnessed
this and also heard it explode was Mrs. Alex. McLaren, living
at 40 Oueen Street, Craigie, Perth. She says that while gazing-
up into the sky, as she frequently does, she saw a ball of fire,
followed by a trail of light, rush across the sky, and disappear
behind a small grey cloud. Before it had time to emerge on the
other aide of the cloud, she heard the sound as of a terrific
explosion, and saw nothing more. It is true it was both seen and
heard from Aboyne, but not by the same people.

It is a remarkable fact that while the meteor was seen by a
large number of people at distances of forty miles from Strathmore,
we have only two records of its being seen from points at distances
less than forty miles, namely, the Perth record, already referred to,
and one at Barrel ton, only about two miles from Cou par Angus,
where Mr. George Miller, Innkeeper, saw what he describes as
“two swirls in the skv.” The explanation of this, no doubt, is
that at a distance of forty miles or more the angle of vision would
be a comparatively low one, so that a person who* happened to be
walking in the proper direction, and whose g-aze was elevated even
to a moderate extent, could hardly fail to see it; whereas, nearer
to the centre of disturbance, an observer would require to- have
been gazing nearly vertically upwards, as Mrs. McLaren said she
frequently did.

When we come to analyse the records of what was heard, we
find that they are in exactly the inverse ratio from the records of
what was seen. The former diminish with the increase of the dis¬
tance from Strathmore and practically cease beyond thirty miles,
while the latter diminish as we approach Strathmore, and prac-
ticallv cease within the thirty mile radius, with one or two- notable
exceptions in both series. This will be strikingly apparent on com¬
paring the tables of distances and directions which are appended
to this paper, f

Practically all these witnesses agree that the meteor, when they
saw it, was travelling in a direction approximately from South East
to North West, the angle of elevation, of course, varying with the
point from which it was seen. It seems to have entered the earth’s
atmosphere and become luminous somewhere off the south-east
coast of Scotland, and tor have travelled in an oblique and gradually
descending course until after it had crossed the Carse of Gowrie and
the Sidlaws. Lip to that point, the friction exercised by the atmos¬
phere, acting against a body travelling at a stellar velocity of some

+ See Appendix B.

82 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

twenty miles per second, would be a constantly increasing quantity,,
as the body gradually descended into the regions of increasing
atmospheric density. At length a point would be reached when the
surface tension of the glowing mass would not be able to resist the
enormous force generated by the difference in temperature and pres¬
sure between the interior and exterior of the body, with the result
that the whole mass disrupted into fragments, producing in doing
so a detonation which was heard over an area of hundreds of square
miles. Judging by the curvature of the outer surfaces seen in the
fragments which have been recovered, I have estimated that the
original body, before its disruption, must ha\Te been at least four
feet in diameter, although this calculation is subject to certain
doubtful factors. If it approached anything like that size, however,
it is evident that only an infinitesimal proportion of the whole has
been recovered. No doubt many fragments may have fallen in the
water or waste land or among vegetation, but probably the largest
proportion was dissipated into dust and gases, as it the case with
the vast majority of the meteorites or “ shooting stars ” which
enter our atmosphere every night.

If we next examine the evidence as to the nature, intensity, and
direction of the sounds which were heard, we find that there is pretty
general agreement amongst the various witnesses, the testimony
varying chiefly according to the distance and angle from which
the sound was heard. Thus in the immediate neighbourhood over
which the explosion took place, it is described not only as a very
loud but as a very sharp explosion. Many of the witnesses speak
of the first explosion being followed by several reports of less
intensity. These were probably produced by reverberations from
clouds, or perhaps from inequalities of land surface. Others again
speak of a loud humming sound, as of a projectile or an aeroplane
rushing through the air. This may have been the sound of the
original great mass being hurled through the atmosphere before its
disruption. The observer at Aboyne estimated the time which
elapsed between the meteor being seen and the detonation heard,
and, allowing for the rate at which sound travels, he calculated
the distance, at the time of the explosion, to be 70 miles-. As i\boyne
is at a horizontal distance of 40 miles from Strathmore, this would
imply that the body was about 50 miles vertically above the earth’s
surface when it exploded. Mr. W. F. Denning of Bristol, however,
one of our leading authorities on meteoric falls, to whom I sent all
the evidence I had collected, gives it as his opinion that it had
reached an elevation of only 14 miles from the earth’s surface when
it became non-luminous and exploded.!

We have now reached the stage in the history of
our celestial visitor when it ceases to be a meteor, and

J See Appendix C.

H. COATES ON THE STRATHMORE METEORITE.

83

becomes a congeries of meteorites, that is, a number of
fragments of inert matter, still warm, but not glowing with
incandescence of white heat ; and falling towards the earth
by the attraction of the force of gravity, but not with the
velocity of a stellar body. When at length they reached the solid
surface of the earth, all the available evidence seems to prove that
both their great initial velocity and their great acquired heat were
almost oir altogether exhausted. These conclusions we arrive at
because, as regards (1) the velocity, we find that the Keithick frag¬
ment, while it pierced the slates and roofing boards of the Lodge,
had not sufficient impetus left to penetrate the lath and plaster
ceiling of the room; while the Carsie fragment, weighing 2\ lbs.,
was only able to sink to a depth of some six inches into the soil of
a ploughed field, while the Essendy fragment, weighing nearly ten
times as much, penetrated only eleven inches through the turf of
a grass field. As regards (2) the heat, again, we find that the
Keithick fragment produced no appearance or smell of burning in
the roof or ceiling of the Lodge, while the Carsie fragment, which
was extracted from the ground bv Mrs. Welsh’s son ten minutes
after it fell, produced no noticeable effect of heat or cold in his
hand, and the Essendy fragment caused no appearance of scorching
in the grass surrounding the hole, or even in the clods which were
thrown out by the impact. The conclusion is, therefore, that the
energy which the body possessed before its disruption must have
been dissipated, partly by the opposition it encountered through
the friction of the atmosphere, and partly by the expenditure of
energy in the actual disruption itself, and its accompanying
detonation.

We have now brought our fragments to earth, and to rest, and
their interest changes from the astronomical to the mineralogical
sphere. To us, inhabitants of the earth, they have become meteo¬
rites pure and simple, inert bodies of a definite mineralogical
character and chemical composition, susceptible of microscopical
examination, chemical analysis, and tests for specific gravity,
besides the more obvious investigations of weight and measure¬
ment. For the result of some of these methods of investigation,
we shall have to wait for a considerable time, as the processes
involved are of extreme delicacy and complexity, and can only be
carried out by the aid of the highest skill available in the country.

In the meantime, however, it is possible to give a general
description of the external characters of the various fragments
which were recovered.

Before describing them seriatim , it may be well to enquire as
to which of the three recognised types of meteorite they should be
referred. These three types, which merge gradually into each
other, are represented by meteorites which consist (a) mainly of

^4 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

iron, (b) mainly of iron and stone, both in large proportions, and
(c) almost wholly of stone (Fletcher), and are known respectively as
Siderites, Siderolites, and Aerolites. On a first cursory examina¬
tion, I was inclined to classify the Strathmore Meteorites as belong¬
ing to the second group (Siderolites), as they manifestly contain a
very appreciable proportion of iron, but Dr. McLintock has no
hesitation in referring them to the third group, and pronouncing
them to be Aerolites. Certainly the non-metallic stony material
largely predominates in their composition, although the metallic
particles glisten throughout the mass. Where an edge has been
chipped, so as to reveal a fresh fracture of the interior mass, the
latter is seen to present the appearance of a fine-grained crystalline
rock, of a light grey colour, resembling perhaps a very fine granite
more than any other known terrestrial rock, and yet differing from
it in some particulars. Through this grey magma are scattered
the metallic particles already referred to, consisting, most probably,
of an alley of iron and nickel. For particulars regarding the
remaining' constituents we must await the results of the detailed
analysis.

These characters being common to all the fragments recovered,
we may now take up the examination of the fragments individually.
Four in all were found, three in Perthshire, and one in Forfarshire.
Taking them in the order in which they were got, they are as
follows : —

i. The Keithick Fragment, weighing 2 lbs. 8 oz. (Plate 6).
This was the fragment which crashed through the roof of the
South Lodge, Keithick (Plate 7), ij miles south-west from Coupar
Angus, occupied by Mr. and Mrs. Thomas Hill, and their daughter,
Miss Mary Hill. It was first discovered by the latter, who climbed
on to the low roof by means of a ladder immediately after the fall,
and saw it resting on the upper surface of the ceiling below. It
was not removed until the following day, however, when Mr.
George S. Mann, slater, Coupar Angus, took it out, and repaired
the hole in the roof. This fragment is roughly cuboidal in shape,
two of the axes being about three inches, and the third axis about
five inches. Two of the surfaces are slightly spherical, and
represent the outer surface of the original mass. The other four
are fractured surfaces. All six surfaces exhibit the characteristic
black coating of thin fused skin, except where they have been
chipped in striking the roof of the Lodge. One end is rather
smaller than the other, and is evidently the one which was in front
in travelling through the air, as it is more damaged than the other
end. The great interest of this fragment lies in the fact that it
seems to be the only one which has been recorded in this country
as having struck and penetrated a building, althougih one similar
incident has been recorded from India.

H. COATES ON THE STRATHMORE METEORITE.

85

2. The Carsie Fragment, weighing 2 lbs. 6 oz. (Plate 8).
This fragment is in some respects the most remarkable of the four.
It is conical in shape, coming to a sharp point at one end, and
exhibits in a very perfect degree the stream-lines which are some¬
times produced in meteorites by a creeping or flowing motion set
up in the fused and semi-fluid outer layer during its rapid passage
through the atmosphere. These striae, or stream-lines, all run
from the pointed end backwards, indicating that the fragment
travelled through the air in the same position as does a pointed
shell from a gun. An interesting feature of this fragment is that
its fractured surfaces show only a rudimentary crust, which must
have been caused by rapid partial fusion, after the disruption of
the original mass.

This fragment fell close to the farm steading of Carsie, 2^ miles
south from Blairgowrie, occupied by Mr. and Mrs. James Welsh
and their son, James Douglas Welsh. Mrs. Welsh was standing
at the door of her house, within twenty yards of the spot where it
fell, and actually saw it enter the ground. (Plate 9). So far as I
am aware, there is only one other record of a meteorite having
been seen to fall to the ground in this country, and only one or twTo
in other lands.

3. The Essendy Fragment, weighing 22 lbs. 4 oz. (Plate 10).
This is a truly magnificent specimen of a meteorite, which has few
rivals among British examples. It forms nearly a perfect cube,
each face being some seven or eight inchs square. It is coated on
all sides with the usual black varnish, or fusion crust, and exhibits
besides very characteristic pittings, or “ thumb-marks,” on three
of the sides, produced by the great heat to which it had been
subjected. The remaining sides are comparatively smooth, and
represent the original curved outer surface.

This fragment fell to earth in a grass park on the farm of Easter
Essendy, in the Parish of Kinloch, two miles south-west from
Blairgowrie, belonging to Mr. Charles Howard Scott. (Plate 11).
In this park a flock of sheep were feeding, which scattered in all
directions when the meteorite fell among them. Charles Smart,
the foreman on the farm, and two of the ploughmen, were standing
at the steading, about 500 yards distant, and saw the commotion,
but it was not until the following day that they went into the park,
and discovered the cause. The hole in the ground was about 18
or 20 inches deep, and about as wide. It had a slight dip towards
the north-west, and on that side some clods had been thrown out,
showing that the meteorite had fallen in a slightly oblique direction,
from the south-east. The ground, both here and at Carsie, was
frozen at least as far down as the fragments had penetrated, other¬
wise the holes would doubtless have been deeper than they were.

G

86 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

4. The Corston Fragment. (Plate 12). This fragment, which
weighs 2 lbs. 5 oz., fell on the lawn adjoining the farm house of
South Corston, tenanted by Mr. Thomas A. Buttar, two miles
south-east of Coupar Angus, and on the Hallybunton Estate, in
Forfarshire. (Plate 13). At the time of the fall, on 3rd December,
some of the farm workers, who were in an adjoining field, about
200 yards distant, were under the impression that something had
fallen near the house, but it was not until four days later, on the
morning of Friday, 7th December, that the fragment was found
by William Duff, gardener at Corston. It had made an oblique
hole in the ground, about five inches wide and six inches deep,
dipping towards the north-west at an angle of about 20 degrees.
The spot was only a few inches from a flower bed, where it might
easily have been overlooked, and not fifty yards from a pond, where
it would certainly have been lost. This fragment shows the same
tabular form as the Essendy and Keithick fragments, showing very
evidently that it has come from the same original mass. It exhibits
two faces of disruption fracture, which are practically at right
angles to each other. The surface is entirely covered with the
usual black fusion skin, except at one point, where it seems to
have struck a stone on entering the ground, and got chipped. It
shows several well-defined “ thumb-marks,” and numerous stream
lines, or striae, running from the point backwards. It is 5f ins.
long, the other two dimensions being 2§ ins., and 2§ ins, ( = 143
x 70 x 60 millimetres).

It is interesting to note the geographical relation of the spots
where these four fragments fell. They are all practically in one
straight line, extending a distance of about six miles, from South
Corston on the south-east to Easter Essendy on the north-west,
and passing through Keithick Lodge and Carsie at intervals of
about two miles, more or less. (Plate 14). This corroborates the
view that the path of the meteor, before its disruption, was from
S.E. to N.W.

It now only remains to mention the destination of these four
fragments, at the date of reading this paper. All four were claimed
by the Crown Authorities, and were sent to the King’s Remem¬
brancer for Scotland in Edinburgh, for disposal. The Director of
the Royal Scottish Museum was instructed to select two of the
fragments for that Institution, and he chose the Essendy and Carsie
Fragments, as exhibiting the most interesting' and characteristic
features. The remaining two fragments were directed to be
returned to the finders, those being Miss Mary Hill in the case of
the Keithick Fragment , and Mr. Thomas Buttar in the case of the
Corston Fragment. The Keithick Fragment is now in the
possession of Miss Brodie-Wood, the owner of the Keithick
property. The final destination of the Corston Fragment is un-

H. COATES ON THE STRATHMORE METEORITE.

87

certain. In the meantime, Mr. Buttar has very kindly placed it
on temporary loan in our Museum, and has indicated that in alll
probability the Perthshire Natural History Museum will form its
ultimate resting- place.

I am indebted to my friend, Mr. Thomas M‘Laren, Burgh
Surveyor, for preparing the three diagrammatic sketches which
accompany this paper.

APPENDIX A.

The Perth Meteorite of 1830.

%

Only two meteorites are recorded as having fallen in Scotland since the
beginning of last century, and one of these, strangely enough, also descended in
Perthshire, its landing place being none other than the North Inch of Perth.
A portion of this meteorite is preserved in the British Museum, and is recorded
in Mr. Fletcher’s “ Introduction to the Study of Meteorites,” published by the
Trustees. Like the Strathmore fragments, it is classified as an Aerolite, or
Meteoric Stone. The fragment weighs only 1.5 gram, and is registered as
having fallen on the North Inch of Perth on May 17, 1830. At my request,
'Mr. Barclay kindly looked up the file of the Perth Courier for that year, and
found the following paragraph under date Tuesday, April 22, 1830 : — “ On the
evening of Priday last (April 18), about half-past nine, a meteor of uncommon
size and brilliance was seen in the north-east. So slow was its apparent motion
that for the space of 20 seconds its course was traced from the horizon to the
zenith, near which it exploded. It must have been at a great height, as the
meteor was seen in almost the same circumstances at different and distant
places in this county. The atmosphere had been, during the day, unnaturally
close and sultry for the season, and changed in the course of the evening to cold
and wet.”

After getting this reference, I wrote to the British Museum, and asked the
authorities to send me all the information they possessed regarding this meteo¬
rite, including a transcription of the original label, etc. In reply, Mr. George
T. Prior, Director of the Mineralogical Department, wrote to me as follows : —
“ Of the previous fall in Perthshire, in 1830, very few particulars, are to be
obtained. The time of fall is given as half-past 12 o’clock noon on May 17,
and to this your extract from the Courier would not seem to refer. Of the
original stone, measuring 7 inches in diameter, only two small specimens appear
to be extant. These originally formed part of the collection of Dr. Thomson,
of Glasgow, but passed into the possession of Mr. William Neville, of Godai¬
ming, by whom one, weighing 23 grains (ij grams), together with a microscope
section, was presented, in 1862, to this Museum, and the other, weighing only
6-1 grains, to the Museum of the Geological Survey of India, Calcutta, in 1868.
The label which accompanied our specimen was in Dr. Thomson’s handwriting,
and read as follows : — ‘ Part of a Meteorite that fell on the North Inch of Perth
during a thunderstorm on the 17th May, 1830, at half-past 12 o’clock noon. The
whole mass of which this is a portion, was about 7 inches in diameter.’
Maskelyne described the B.M. specimen in the Philosophical Magazine, 1863,
Vol. 25, p. 437, and the Indian specimen is referred to in Records, Geol. Surv.
India, 186S-70, Vol. 1, p. 72.”

88 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

Notwithstanding Mr. Prior’s expression of opinion to the contrary, I cannot
help thinking that there is a close connection between the phenomenon described
in the Courier , and the specimen referred to in Dr. Thomson’s label, and now
in the British Museum. Every museum curator knows how easy it is for slight
discrepancies as to date, etc., to creep into the description of specimens, unless
the label is written on the very day a specimen is found. We do not know
how long it was after this meteorite was recovered before it came into the
possession of Dr. Thomson, of Glasgow, In the meantime the description, if
given to him from memory, might easily have become erroneous as to date
•and hour. The description in the Courier , on the other hand, must have been
written not more than four days after the event. The references to the weather
are in both cases, of course, purely gratuitous, as there is no connection between
meteorites and meteorological conditions. It is interesting to note, however,
that in Dr. Thomson’s label, the “ sultry ” weather of the Courier has become
magnified into a “ thunderstorn ” ! In any case, the weather is a coincidence,
not a consequence.

APPENDIX B.

Records of Distances and Directions from which the Meteor was seen,

and the Detonation heard.

Place.

Distance.

Direction.

Seen by.

Heard by.

In the District,

Miles.

O

10

Burrelton,

2

s.w.

I

—

Dundee, - - - -

12

S.E.

—

Several.

Glencarse,

13

S-5°W.

—

Several.

Perth, - - -

14

S.W.

I

9

Cotton, -

l6

S.W.

—

1

Forfar, - - -

l6

E.N.E.

—

Several.

St. Andrews,

22

S.E.

—

1

Crossgates,

32

S.

I

—

Bridge of Allan,

37

S.W.

2

—

Leith, - - -

39

s.

I

Aboyne, -

40

N.N.E.

1

1

Edinburgh,

4i

S.

7

—

Callander,

42

w.s.w.

0

J

—

Musselburgh,

44

S. io°E.

1

—

Port of Monteith,

46

s.w.

2

—

St. Boswells,

7i

S. by E.

Several.

—

Hexham, -

126

S.S.E.

1

—

N.B. — The distances and directions are reckoned from Coupar Angus.

H. COATES ON THE STRATHMORE METEORITE.

89

APPENDIX C.

Report on the Path of the Meteor, by Mr. W. F. Denning, F.R.A.S.,
Bristol ; deduced from evidence supplied.

I have gone thoroughly into the various observations, but they are of such
a character that to obtain exact or certain results from them as to the meteor’s
flight in the atmosphere is not possible. The most that can be done is to derive
the best result possible from the data. From the distribution of the fragments,
the line of flight must have been about azimuth 3090 counted W. from S.
Some of the descriptions of the path also clearly indicate this direction, and I
believe the apparent astronomical radiant point is very likely to have been at
;R.A. 3020, declination 240 N., which had an altitude of 490 at the time of the
meteor's apparition. If this is correct, probably the place of the meteor’s first
appearance was over a point about 8 miles E.N.E. of Dunbar, at a height of
64 miles. Directed nearly to N.W., it passed over Anstruther at a height of
41 miles, and over the Firth of Tay (S.W. of Dundee) at a height of 18 miles.
It seems to have detonated when over the region of Rossie Priory, and N.W.
of that place, and to have become non-luminous at a height of about 14 mi/les.
The whole path was 87 miles, during which it descended at an angle of 490,
so that the geographical distance traversed was about 57 miles. The velocity
is uncertain, for the observers give no estimate of the duration of flight. It
was presumably about 15 or 20 miles per second at first, but the motion of the
fragments on reaching the ground was probably not more than 500 feet per
second. (Plate 15).

Quite a number (8 or more) of bright, slow moving meteors were seen
between Dec. 1 and Dec. 12, 1917, directed from the same radiant in the small
constellation Sagitta, at 302° 4- 240, from whence the Strathmore meteorites
appear to have been also directed. It would seem therefor that the original
mass formed an exceptional member of a regular shower.

The meteorite which fell in Lancashire on Oct. 13, 1914, became non-
luminous at an elevation of ’about 15 miles. I think it is proved that these
bodies lose their luminosity sometime before they actually fall, and that they
reach the giound in a semi-cool condition.

From a mean of about 40 estimates of the time of the Dec. 3 meteor, I
make it 1.18 p.m.

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15.— Diagrammatic Elevation, showing the Course of the Falling Meteor

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PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, ,

A 7 THE PERTHSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM

1921.

FRANK M‘ LAGAN ON RHIZOPODS OF PERTHSHIRE.

91

VIII. — Rhizopods of Perthshire.
Bv Frank M‘ Lagan.

(Read 9th January, 1920.)

The Protozoa are an exceedingly small although intensely
interesting phylum of animals. The distinguishing feature between
these members of the zoological kingdom and all the others is, that
they are unicellular, while the metazoa, as their name indicates,
consist of many cells, different groups of cells composing the
different organs. The various organs in the metazoan are composed
of cells which are physiologically entirely different and also anatomi¬
cally different in many cases, while the protozoan, on the other hand,
is composed of one cell which apparently performs the multitude of
actions and duties imposed upon the innumerable cells of the body of
the higher type of animal. Like them it is irritable, although no
nervous system or even tissue has been demonstrated. It engulfs
and digests food without the aid of an alimentary canal and has no
organs to pour their secretions upon the food. The single cell,
therefore, of a protozoon must possess the characteristics of ail the
cells which go to compose the body of a metazoan.

The term Protozoa includes both animals and plants. This
may appear a strange statement to those who have never studied
this very primitive phylum, but the difficulty in stating whether
an organism of this class is an animal or a plant can be appreciated
when at one period of its life it may feed and carry on its functions
the same as a very lowly plant, such as the members of the
vegetable world known as the algae, while during another
phase of its life the same organism will physiologically
function the same as an animal. The zoologist then places the
organism in his scheme of classification and the botanist also
places it in his ; each claiming his functions are the more pre¬
dominant. These are the more primitive types, however, for even
in these most simple of organisms there are simple and more
complex species. The higher types, such as the Ciliates, Sporozoa,
and even the Rhizopoda, can be definitely and accurately placed
in the list of members of the animal kingdom.

Protozoa, being unicellular protoplasmic beings, can only live
in fluid media. They are cosmopolitan in nature and are found
everywhere, amid the most varied and different environments.
Man\ species are parasitic in habit, while the greater number are

H

92 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

free living. The non-parasitic members of this family are found
all over the world. Some, such as the Radiolaria, Foraminifera,
and Ciliates, are found in salt water, the Foraminifera being that
very important group which bear the minute shells which through
aeons have accumulated in such numbers as to compose the chalk
cliffs and strata which bear such an important part in the land¬
scape and fertility of southern England. The dead Radiolarian
plays a no less important role in the foundation of the world, as
it is their shells which compose the greater part of those flinty
rocks which have originally been submerged in the depths of the
ocean. These two great classes, the Foraminifera and the Radio¬
laria, are only to be found in the sea, not being obtained in fresh
water at all. The Ciliates, however, may be called cosmopolitans
of a race of cosmopolitans, as they are found over all, living
under the most various conditions. Many of them live in salt
water and are never found in fresh water at all, others live in
fresh water and never change their abode, while many are para¬
sitic. The above illustrations show what a widely spread race
of animals this is. They are found not only in equatorial regions,
but even in the Arctic and Antarctic seas, not confined to the clean
waters of river, sea, and loch, but found even in the city sewage
pipes. Some more adventurous than others have become parasitic,
many of these forms causing severe pathological conditions in man,
such as the malaria parasite, Plasmodium malarice, and the
cause of one type of dysentery is due to a Rhizopod, Entamceba
hystolitica.

The present classification of the Protozoa is very artificial and
extremely unsatisfactory. The organisms are classified according
to their mode of locomotion, but, as can be seen, when an animal
moves according to one group at one part of its life, and according
to another group at a different phase, it is rather difficult to say
to which group it belongs, since many of the organisms pass
through various stages in their life history before they attain an
adult form, and many of these immature stages are totally different
from the adult, and have been classed as distinct species. These
few instances will serve to show how poor the present method of
classification is, and the difficulty one has in announcing definitely
to which class an organism belong-s.

This phylum is primarily divided into four main classes : —
(i) The Sarcodina, which are Protozoa which grow to a relatively
large size and have no permanent organs of locomotion
during the “ adult phase.” The animal moves and captures its
food by means of pseudopodia, the formation and function of

93

FRANK M* LAGAN ON RHIZOPODS OF PERTHSHIRE.

which will be discussed later. The young' forms of this group
may be either amoeboid or flagellate. (2) The Mastigophora, or
Flag'ellata, are Protozoa of a minute size which seldom have a
large adult phase. In the adult phase the organism moves and
captures food by means of a flagellum, a very long, slender thread
of protoplasm, which is lashed to and fro and so causing the
animal to move. These two groups are the more primitive of
the four groups, and it is from these that the more highly
specialised SpoFozoa and Ciliata have been evolved. (3) The
Soorozoa have no visible means of locomotion and are entirelv

x -

parasitic. They propagate their species from one host to another
by means of resistant seed-like bodies which contain the immature
parasite. These resistant cases are known as spores, hence the
general class name Sporozoa. (4) The Infusoria, or Ciliata, are
very highly developed, and evolutionary far superior to any of
the other groups of this large phylum. In this group the cell
structure attains a high degree of complexity and differentiation
of parts. They move by means of a great number of small cilia
or tags of protoplasm which, by means of a combined wave
motion in one particular direction, propel the animal through the
water. The Sarcodina, the class under discussion, is again
divided into se\’eral sub-classes, of which the Rhizopoda forms
a very important member. As the name indicates, these animals
are the possessors of branched, root-like pseudopodia, which are
variable in shape and in number, as they can be protruded and
retracted into the general protoplasm of the ceil. This sub-class
is found in many different situations. Some are parasitic in many
animals, including man ; others are found in fresh and salt water,
living on the debris which they find while creeping slug-like over
the aquatic vegetation. A few members of this class are semi¬
terrestrial in habit. An example of this can be well seen in Amoeba
terricola, which inhabits moist ground. Many others are to be
found dwelling on moss, the small film of water covering this
plant being sufficient to allow them to carry on their metabolic
functions.

Many members of the sub-class Rhizopoda, instead of being
naked masses of protoplasm have shells or tests in which they
dwell and which protects them from their many enemies. Others,
however, like Amoeba froteus, the common laboratory example,
appear to be naked masses of protoplasm without even the
limitations of a cell membrane.

Although found in nearly every sample of water taken from
river, stream, and loch, these animals are usually overlooked by

94 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

zoologists on account of their minute size and their sluggishness.
Many of them are quite large, relatively speaking, such as many
of the amoebae, but on account of their slow motion and appear¬
ance they are very difficult to see, while the Euglyphas and
Nebelas, which anyone could tell at a glance were animals, are
so minute that the higher powers of the microscope are required
before thev can be found, and, even then, a twelfth-inch oil immer¬
sion objective is required before the details can be seen which
determine the species.

The Rhizopods are the naked or testaceous Sarcodina with
pseudopodia of the lobose, digitate, acicular, or reticulate types.
The adult forms are amoeboid in structure, while the young in¬
dividuals are amoeboid of flagellate and are produced bv cell
division during life or following encystment. In some species,
e.g., V ampyrella vorax, a number of individuals fuse together to
form a plasmodium. This sub-class is divided into two main
orders : — (i) Amoebina, which have a naked body, being simply
masses of nucleated protoplasm ; and (2) the Conchulina, which
bear tests of the most varied shapes and of different construction.
Each of these orders is again divided up into families and genera,
but of these nothing need be said in a short survey of the class
such as this.

The cell, like all others, is composed of that basis of life,
protoplasm, which is apparently a very complex chemical com¬
pound of the nature of a protein. Unlike most other types of
cell, however, the naked or Amoebinoid type of Rhizopod has no
cell membrane to preserve the individuality of the animal, i.e. ,
there is nothing between the protoplasm and the external world.
The protoplasm in contact with the external medium appears to
form a covering for the animal which effectively keeps the water
which is generally the surrounding medium from entering and
permeating the cell. There are many views on the subject of this
differentiation of protoplasm at the surface of contact, Auerbach
stating that a cell membrane does exist, while Dr. Wallich refuted
this statement and announced that there was no cell membrane, a
view which is held by most of the students of the subject at the
present day. The protoplasm in contact with the water is
supposed, by some, to “ stiffen ” or coagulate immediately it
comes in contact with the surrounding liquid ; others, however,
think the effect is due to surface tension. This point is not settled
at the present moment, but undoubtedly both the biological and
the physical factors are at work in this phenomenon.

This external layer of protoplasm, or ectoplasm as it is called,

FRANK M‘ LAGAN OX RHIZOPODS OF PERTHSHIRE.

95

is more hyaline and clearer than the granular and more fluid
endoplasm. Although visually it is entirely different from the
more easily seen endoplasm, it is anatomatically the same. At
one moment endoplasm forms ectoplasm and vice-versa. Many
students of the subject have brought forward statements saying
that there are intermediate layers between the ectoplasm and the
endoplasm. They even stated that these layers were definite and
fixed, and went so far as to assign functions to them. This effect
may have been artificially produced by the action of the fixing
and staining methods on the proteins of the cell, and in this way
producing an artifact.

The endoplasm is that portion of protoplasm of the cell which
is internal to the ectoplasm. It is more fluid in nature and is
densely granular, containing- the small particles of digested and
partly digested foodstuffs each within a small vescicle of proto¬
plasm containing licjiiid. The endoplasm is in constant motion,
the particles in many cases making definite periodic journeys to
the different parts of the cell. It is in the endoplasm that the
processes of digestion of food takes place. Each food vacuole,
as a pellet of food and its surrounding envelope is called, appears
to contain digestive ferments which act on the food alone and in
some peculiar manner leave the neighbouring protoplasm of the
vescicle untouched. The undigestable remains of the food is got
rid of at any point on the surface of the body in the naked forms,
and at the aperture of the test in the shelled forms. This
defecation consists simply of the movement of the vacuole towards
the surface and finally the extrusion of the contained particles.
Many of the vacuoles contain, instead of food, stored up nutrient
substances such as fat and “ paraglycogen. ” These are stored
up in great quantities before the animal undergoes developmental
changes. Many substances, however, contained in the endoplasm
are excretory in nature and apparently are of no use for future
metabolism ; examples of these are the pigment granules seen in
many Rhizopods and also the crystals which in many cases are
said to consist of uric acid. Finally, the bubbles of gas seen in
the various Arcellae, although probably not metaplastic in nature,
can be classed as parts of the endoplasm, as they are formed there
and can apparently be reformed and absorbed at the pleasure of
the animal. These seem to serve hydrostatic functions, the
animal apparently depending on the number and size of these
bubbles for its position in the water.

As can be seen from the foregoing instances the endoplasm
serves a very important function in the metabolism of the cell,

96 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

as it carries the various nutrient juices which are the results of
digestion to all parts of the cell ; carrying on, in fact, the functions
of the blood in the higher animals.

Since the structure of the ectoplasm and the endoplasm and
also their functions have now been discussed, the formation and
uses of pseudopodia can now be studied. In the class Rhizopoda,
there are a few different types of pseudopodia : — (i) The Amoebina
and the Arcellida possess lobose forms which are usually few in
number ; (2) The Acicular type of pseudopodia seen in the genus
Euglypha. These form stiff, branching nets in some cases which
serve to capture food ; (3) There is the reticulate form, which
spreads out widely, branching and anastomosing many times,
forming a very efficient net which serves to capture prey. In all
cases the pseudopodia are variable in shape, size, and number.

The cause of the production of pseudopodia has been the subject
of a few theories and a large number of lively controversies.
Some thought that contractile fibres, which were never demon¬
strated, acted like small muscles and pulled the protoplasm into
the form of a pseudopodium. This is just one of the many
fantastic and erring theories which were advanced in order to
explain the peculiar motion of these animals. At present the
formation of these processes are being explained satisfactorily by
means of the physical laws governing the behaviour of liquids,
particularly the laws of surface tension. By means of these
physical laws, however, everything cannot be explained, and as
Dr. Calkin remarks, “ The theories advanced still remain working
hypothesis. ’ ’

The laws governing the formation of pseudopodia may not be
known, but the different appearances which they undergo are well
understood, and may be briefly described as follows : — The ecto¬
plasm flows out, forming a slight protuberance which continues to
grow, being at first perfectly hyaline and clear, as it consists entirelv
of ectoplasm. In some forms the pseudopodium is mainlv formed
before the second stage occurs. This consists of an axial stream
of granular endoplasm which flows to near the tip of the structure,
where it diverges and flows backwards into the mass of the cell
via the edges of the pseudopodium. This fountain-like process
can be easily studied in Amoeba proteus, which protrudes ideal
lobose pseudopodia on the slightest provocation.

By means of these digitate processes the animal moves in a
peculiar flowing manner, in fact it is nothing more nor less than
an actual flowing forward of the mass of protoplasm which con¬
stitutes the animal. The shelled forms, on the other hand, pull

FRANK M‘ LAGAN ON RHIZOPODS OF PERTHSHIRE.

97

themselves along- by means of pseudopodia which grasp the sub¬
strata. Amoeba terricola, however, which possesses a pellicle, or
cell membrane, puts forth a number of pseudopodia on one side,
which overbalances it, and in this manner the animal literally
rolls along. These examples show how the different species use
the same organs in different manners to achieve the same end,
and that even in this very primitive group of organisms evolution,
or specialisation of parts as it may be called, has taken place.

Although locomotion is accomplished by means of the pseudo¬
podia, they also serve the animal as instruments for the capture
and inception of food. When some nutritious substance is in
the vicinity of a Rhizopod which possesses pseudopodia, the animal
can be seen to flow round its prey and enclosing it within a chamber
of living protoplasm together with a small amount of water, this
forming what is termed a food vacuole in which the processes
of digestion are carried on. This process of food inception is
also assisted by a slimy adhesive secretion which forms a thin
layer on the surface of the ectoplasm of the pseudopodia, as the
object which has been encountered is in this way more firmly held
while the animal surrounds it. The various other types of Rhizo--
poda, other than the family Lobosa, capture their food by similar
methods which vary very little from the example which has been
cited.

The food of the Rhizopoda may be generally stated to be of
vegetable origin, from which they extract the chlorophyll and
get rid of the indigestible remains. It consists most frequently
of these microscopic members of the vegetable kingdom such as
diatoms, desmids, and the spores of algae. Some species, how¬
ever, prey upon other minute animals, as commonly Radiolaria
and even other Protozoa may be seen in the g'astric vacuole, making
very violent attempts to escape. They seem also to have a slight
power of selection, but this is not found in every case. In Vam-
pyvella Jateritia, for example, this power is relatively abnormally
developed, as the animal apparently searches lor its food, which
consists of the protoplasmic contents of the cells of filamentous
algae allied to Spirogyra. The chlorophyll obtained from these
various sources is then distributed through the endoplasm, there
to undergo further digestion and be changed into soluble com¬
pounds which can nourish the various parts of the organism.

Since food is ingested, the results of metabolism — that is, the
results of katabolism — have to be removed from the protoplasm.
Partly, this is accomplished, as has been previously stated, by the
expulsion of the solid end-products at any portion of the surface

98 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIFTY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

in the members of the Amoebina, and at the aperture or mouth
of the test in the members of the Conchulina. The finer waste
products of metabolism are got rid of, however, by definite organs
of excretion, which are called contractile or pulsating vescicles
or vacuoles. Each species of the sub-class under discussion usually
has a definite number of these organs, but the number may vary,
as in Arcella vulgaris, that beautifully symmetrical shelled form
which is common in all the ponds and ditches about Perth, which
commonly has four of these organs, but has been seen with far
more.

In all forms the vescicle pulsates rhythmically, gradually filling
up with fluid and suddenly bursting at the surface of the body,
where its contents are expelled. The time of a pulsation can be
varied by the temperature, pressure, and also by varying the
medium in which the animal is situated. This vacuole has been
definitely ascertained to be for the purpose of nitrogenous ex¬
cretion, and therefore analogous to the urinary org'ans of the
metozoa. There is a relation between the contractile vacuole and
the nucleus which is at present not understood. It is seen that
as the vacuole grows, it lags on account of the increase of
its weight compared with that of the surrounding protoplasm
and so finally reaches the ectoplasm of the posterior region,
where it discharges its contents. Its reappearance is
always somewhere at its point of disappearance, and while still
a very minute globule it is carried by the currents of the proto¬
plasm back to a position in close proximity to the nucleus. The
contractile vacuole is also supposed to aid the elimination of
carbon dioxide, formed as a result of respiration. This has never
been actually proved, but beyond doubt is one of the chief functions
of this organ about which so little is known and upon which
experiments are so difficult to perform.

The nucleus in all its various forms is distinguished from the
other elements of the cell by containing a large quantity of that
substance known as chromatin, which is now mentioned in even,’
volume of evolution and heredity, and which plays such an im¬
portant part in many of the theories which have been invented to
explain some of the multitude of mysteries which surround these
very interesting subjects. Another complex constituent of the
nucleus is a substance termed achromatic, which is distinguished
from chromatin by not possessing the property of staining with
basic aniline dyes, and in fact is very difficult to demonstrate by
any means whatsoever. These substances are, relative to the
cytoplasm, very much richer in phosphorus containing proteins.

FRANK M‘ LAGAN ON RHIZOPODS OF PERTHSHIRE.

99

A very common occurrence in the Rhizopoda, however, is that
a certain amount of extra nuclear chromatin is sometimes present.
This is well seen in that example, Arcella vulgaris. This chromatin
is known as chromidia, and may take up different forms outside
the nucleus, either in the form of scattered granules or as masses
of chromatin. A great deal has been written about this chromidia
and the important part it plays in cell life, but it would be a
deviation from the subject if dwelt more fully upon in this article.

The nuclei of the different species of Rhizopoda vary greatly
from one another in their shape and according to the manner in
which the chromatin is distributed within it. In many cases
secondary nuclei are formed from the extra nuclear chromatin,
therefore proving that the statement “ Omnis nucleus e nucleo ”
is false in the case of Rhizopods. The chromatin in a cell, how¬
ever, can never form de novo; at least it has never been observed
in this group, and the only way in which it increases in quantity
is from pre-existing chromatin which grows as a result of
assimilation.

The nonchromatinic portion of the nucleus consists of various
structures. There is a fine network which is composed of a sub¬
stance termed linin, which ramifies through the whole structure,
optically giving an effect of alveolar nature. The interstices of
this supporting skeleton are filled by a fluid probably identical
with the hyaloplasm of the cell and named enchylema. Another
component of the nucleus named plastin occurs in masses or
knots throughout the structure, and forms the ground substance
of the nucleoli or karyosomes. In addition to these substances
named above the nucleus often contains a body named the centro-
some, which appears to act as controlling centre for the many
peculiar operations which the various parts of the nucleus perform
during reproduction.

The number of nuclei in a species is usually fairly definite,
although there are members of this class in which the number
varies within limits. Some, such as Amoeba proteus, possess only
one, while that giant among the Amoebina, Pelomyxa palustris,
is the proud possessor of many thousands scattered throughout
the protoplasm. The variation in the different species, however,
does not occur in numbers alone, but in the structure of the
nucleus as well. A good example of this can be seen in that
very small animal called Amoeba Umax, the nucleus of which, if
it may with exactitude be called a nucleus, has no protecting
membrane surrounding it like most of the other Rhizopods. The
reasons will now be evident why this structure has been so long

IOO TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE S OCTET Y OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

dwelt upon. Firstly, because there is no specific characteristic
by which the nuclei of this group might be distinguished at present.
A law could certainly be formed which would define the ideal
Rhizopodan nucleus, but, unfortunately, every animal would prove
an exception. Secondly, this structure appears to function greatly
during the time of reproduction or cell division.

The Rhizopoda reproduce mainly by simple cell division or
spore formation, either in the active state or during encvstment.
In the former there is an equal bi-partition of the protoplasm and
the other constituents of the cell after the nucleus has undergone
that complicated form of division known as karyokinesis. In the
testaceous forms this simple method of division becomes more
complicated, especially in those forms whose shells are secreted.
Taking as an example of this kind that beautiful member of the
Conchulina, namely, Euglvpha, the nucleus before division is seen
to be nearly surrounded by quartz plates of a similar shape to
those of the parent shell. The cell then undergoes nuclear division
and one of the nuclei travels towards the aperture of the cell.
The next step in this act is the growing out of the protoplasm

in the form of a bud, which gradually enlarges until it is about

the same size as the parent, when the plates around the nucleus
then symmetrically cover the animal. Separation now occurs,
and the two animals go their own ways to carry or. the
same functions. Reproduction under the protection of a
cyst, on the other hand, usually takes place in the

manner known as spore formation. The animal becomes

more spherical in its shape and secretes a protective
covering for its body or aperture of its shell, and fragmentation
of both the protoplasm and nucleus takes place. Each portion of
nucleus surrounded by its “ ration ” of protoplasm may then do
two things according to its species. It may develop flagella and
break through the cyst, and after a time lose its flag*ella, develop
pseudopodia, and become amoeboid ; or it may never pass through
the flagellate period, but develop straight away into the amoeboid
phase. In some cases, however, there is a slight deviation from
this method of a sexual reproduction, as the swarm spores may
take the place of gametes and conjugate, and in this way produce
the adult individual.

After this short description of the main points of this class of
animals, a few remarks of their distribution in the vicinitv of
Perth will not be out of place. As will be seen from the table,
many cif the most beautifully shelled forms of the genus Euglypha
are to be obtained amongst the moss growing in the quarry at

FRANK M‘ LAGAN ON RHIZOPODS OF PERTHSHIRE.

IOI

Corsie Hill, and also from the Muir of Durclie. The more common
members of the Difflugia genus are fairly evenly distributed
throughout the pools in the vicinity, living on the debris at the
bottom of the pools, but the place par excellence for this type
is in the backwaters of the Earn, where many rare forms are
to be obtained. The naked Amoebae are found in great abundance
in that small ditch running along the side of the Dunkeld Road,
where certain species appear to grow to a relatively large size.
The commonest species is Arcella vulgaris , which has been found
in great numbers in every gathering which has been made, and
can be obtained at nearly any period of the year in the pond at
north end of the North Inch. Several rare forms, which have
never been found in Scotland and which have not been recorded
for Perthshire before, are contained in the list, and I am certain
if any of the members of the outlying district took up the study
of this interesting sub-class, or sent gatherings to the Museum,
many species would be obtained which have never been seen
before. In addition to the increasing the members of their native
fauna, they could, I am sure, by the careful studies of the life
histories of the different species, overthrow the present artificial
and complicated classification for a more natural and simpler one.

This work was mostly done, during my vacation, in the
laboratory of the Perth Museum, for the use of which I am
indebted to the Perth Town Council ; also the curator, Mr. Ritchie,
for his encouragement and the help which he has given me from
time to time.

PHYLUM PROTOZOA—

Class, Sarcodina ; Sub-class, Rhizopoda ; Order, Amcebina.

Family, Lobosa.

Genus Amoeba —

A. proteus
A. villosa
A. fluida
A. vespertilio
A. verrucosa

A. verrucosa var papyraceae

B.B., I., C.C.
B.B., M.D.
P.Q.

Genus Dactylosphaerium —
D. radiosum.

1.

Genus Pelomyxa —
P. palustris
P. villosa

B.B. , C.C., M.D.
M.D.

102 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

Family, Vampyrellid^.

Genus Vampyrella—

V. lateritia P.Q.

Order, Conchulina ; Family, Arcellida.

Genus

Arcella —

A. vulgaris

B.B., E., I., M.D.,
M.L., P.Q., My.L

A. vulgaris var angulosa

A.

A. discoides

I., M.D., My.L.

A. mitrata

M.D.

Genus

Pseudochlamys —

P. patella

C.Q., M.D.

Genus

Centropyxis —

C. aculeata

L, E.

C. aculeata var discoides

A.L.

Genus

Difflugia —

D. oblonga

C.C., C.Q., I., E.
Mv.L./B.B.

D. oblonga var lacustris

C.C.', E.

D. oblonga var venusta

E.

D. constricta

E., M.D., I., A.L.
M.L., My.L.

D. constricta var spin ifera

E., M.D., ILL., B.B.
A.L., My.L.

D. accuminata

E., M.D.. I.

D. accuminata var inflata

E., M.D., I.

D. brevicola

C.C.

D. globulus

C.O., I., M.D.

D. oviformis

A.L.

D. lanceolata

E.

D. lobostoma

E.

D. pristis

I.

D. urceolata

M.L.

Genus

Quadrula —

Q. symmetrica

C.O., M.D.

Genus

Lesquerusia —

1

L. modesta

C.C., E.

L. spiralis

C.C.

L. insequalis

C.C.

Genus

Nebula —

N. collaris

C.C., M.D.

N. tincta

C.C.

N. galeata

C.C.

N. vitraea

C.C.

N. Americana

C.C.

FRANK M‘ LAGAN ON RHIZOPODS OF PERTHSHIRE.

IO3

Genus

Hyalosphenia —

H. inconspicua

E.

H. sinuosa

C.C.

Genus

Pontigulasia —

P. compressa

C.C.

Family,

Euglyphida.

Genus

Euglypha —

E. ciliata

C.C., C.Q., M

E. ciliata forma glabra

C.Q. , C.C., M

E. compressa

C.Q.

E. tuberculata

C.Q., M.D.

E. scutigera

M.D.

E. acanthophora

E.

Genus

Trinema —

T. enchelys

C.Q., Mv.L.,

M.D.

T. lineare

C.Q., M.D.

Genus

Cyphocleria —

C. ampulla

C.Q. , M.D., I.

C. ampulla var major

P.Q.

Genus

Assulina —

A. seminulum

M.D.

Genus

Corythion —

C. dubium

M.D.

Genus

Sphenoderia —

S. lenta

C.C.

Family, Grominia ; Sub-family, Pseudogrominia.

Genus

Lecythium —

L. hvalinum

J

M.D.

Genus

Pseudodifflugia —

P. gracilis

M.D.

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS.

A.

Mouth of the Almond.

A.L.

Abercairney Loch.

B.B.

Bogle Bridge, Dunkeld Road.

C.C.

Caledonian Carnp.

C.Q. .

Corsiehill Quarry.

E.

Backwaters of the Earn.

I.

Pond, top of North Inch.

M.D.

Muir of Durdie.

M.L

Methven Loch.

My.L.

Marley I.och.

P.Q.

Perch Ouarrv, Muirhall.

104 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

IX. — Cairngorm Mountains seen from Perth.

By John Ritchie, M.A., LL.B.

(Read ioth December, 1920.)

In 1903 I submitted to the Society notes on the horizon seen
from Corsiehi.ll and some other points of view near Perth. In
the interval since then little or nothing has been discovered which
calls for remark so far as the view from Corsiehill is concerned,
though my attention has been drawn to- the fact that, in favourable
weather, the summit of Schiehallion is seen (and no more) from the
place at which the Chart stands.

A friend has, however, been able to identify for me some
important mountains seen from Murrayshall Hill, and I wish to
have the result of his observations placed on permanent record in
the Society's Transactions for future reference.

On examining the Chart it will be observed that there is a part
of the horizon between Beinn, Bhuirich and Carn an Righ, i.e.,
almost due north of Perth, in which no- distant mountains are shown.
I expressed my opinion in 1903 that from Murrayshall Hill some
of the summits of the Cairngorm range could be seen in this
direction, including Cairntoul. The indentifi cation of these,
however, was a matter of great difficulty, but all doubt has now
been removed by the investigations of the gentleman referred to
(Mr. William Barclay, Sunnyside, Scone). One very clear morning,
near the end o-f May, 1919, he went up Murrayshall Hill and by the
aid of a telescope made a sketch of the distant tops seen in the space
referred to, noting the shapes and positions of the snow patches,
then three or four days later he made his way to some of the hills
near the Spital of Glenshee — Glas Thulachan and Carn an Righ —
and from the summits of these mountains compared his sketch with
the hills and snow patches seen still further to- the north. “ I had
no hesitation at all,” he writes, “ in coming to- the conclusion that
the tops visible belong to- the Cairngorm giants — Cairntoul, Angel’s
Peak, and Braeriach. There were no snow patches in that direction
to be mistaken for those on Braeriach descending in parallel lines
from the skyline.” He also identified a mountain seen to- the west
of those already named as Sgoiran Dubh, which lies to the east of
Kingussie and on the east side of Glenfeshie.

The accompanying sketch will help members of the Society to
identify all these mountains. The heights are : — Sgoran Dubh
(3658); Braeriach (4248); Angel’s Peak (4095); and Cairntoul
(4241). The distance of these peaks from Perth, in a direct line,
is about 50 miles.

While they are not visible from Corsiehill they are well seen on
a clear day from Deuchny Hill, Which makes an excellent view point

j. RITCHIE, M. A. - CAIRNGORM MOUNTAINS SEEN FROM PERTH. I05

now that the wood which formerly covered it has been cut down.

It may also' be noted here that on lookings southwards frfom
Murrayshall Hill the Lammermuirs are visible to the east and the
Pentlands to the wesit of the Fife Lomonds. Among- the Pemtlanld
summits there may be recognised Carnethy, Scaldlaw, East Kip,
and West Kip. 1 am informed that the revolving ligdit of the Bell
Rock Lighthouse can be seen from the same hill on a clear' night.

Mountains seen from King’s Seat.

Members of the Society who are interested in the identification
of the mountains seen from the neighbourhood of Perth will find
it useful to examine the horizon from a number of points lying, say,
to the north-east of the city, ihus they might take in succession,
Kinnoull Hill, Deuchny Hill, Murrayshall Hill, Shian Hill (the
prominent little hillock beyond the Muir of Durdie Road), Dunsinnan
and King’s Seat. The last of these, the well-known summit in the
Sidlaws, is about io miles from Perth. It is 1235 feet in height.

When on King’s Seat one very clear day a few years ago I made
some notes on the mountains, mostly to the west and north, visible
from that hill, and these particulars are now set down in the hope
that they may be of some use.

From west to east the following mountains are prominent —

Ben Ledi , over Balmalcolm Farm.

Ben Vorlich and Stiic a Chroin , over Dunsinnan Gate Lodge —
a red-tiled roof.

Ben Lawers , with its adjoining peaks, Beinn Ghlas, An Stuc
Meall Garbh and Meall Gruaidih, makes one of the most impressive
hill groups seen from King’s Seat. The guide line is the prominent
whitewashed shooting lodge of Tullvbeagles to the west of Glengar.

Cairn Mairg and the Glenlyon hills form the next high group,
between Ben Lawers and Schiehallion, which needs no guidie line
for its identification.

Next appears the rounded summit of Farragon) and if the day be
clear two distant hills will be seen peeping over the nearer horizon
line, somewhat to the right of Farragon. These are doubtless on the
county march about Dalnaspidal, and they may be Sg'airneach Mor
and A’ Mharconnich.

Ben Dearg appears between Ben Vrackie and Beinn a’ Ghlo.

Beinn a’ Ghlo is seen over Burrelton,

Beinn Bhnirich (Vuroch) is almost in front of Cam nan Gabhar,
the highest Summit in the Beinn a’ Ghlo range.

The Cairngorm tops are not seen so well as from hills nearer
Perth, as several of them are now hidden bv Cam an Righ, but to
the left of Sgoran Dubh another high mountain has come into
view which is not seen from the heights near Perth. This is An

Io6 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

S garsoch (3300 feet), which lies on the march between Perthshire
and Inverness-shine, near the source of the river Feshie. Sgarsoch
is seen over Woodside.

Cam an Righ and Glas Thulachan are seen over Blairgowrie.
Mount Blair , over west end of Coupar-Angus.

Glas Maol, Cairn na Glasha , Caenlochan Glen and Monega, over
Coupar-Angus.

Cam Bhinnein, over Old Rattray.

The Cairnwell is hidden by Mount Blair.

Lochnagar shows behind Mayar.

Driesh is seen over Alyth.

North Berwick Law is visible from Kind’s Seat.

<_>

X. — Museum Notes by John Ritchie, F.R.A.I., Curator.

(Taken as read 10th December, 1920.)

The following are a few notes which may be of interest to
members of the Society, viz. : —

A Wild Cat fFelis catus , L.j was caught in a trap at Glenlyon
in November, 1919.

A Badger (Meles taxus, Schrieb.j, female, was caught at Dupplin
in September, 1920.

A Waxwing (Amp ells gar ruins , L.j was killed in Carse of Cowrie
in December, 1920.

During the summer several Longicorn Beetles of the Species
Acanthocinus cedelis were caught at Luncarty and at Stanley, the
probability of this being owing to the fact of so much of our native
wood having been cut down.

Sawflies seem to be on the increase throughout Perthshire, many
specimens of Sirex gigas having been sent into the Museum during
the last year. Besides Sirex gigas we received several examples of
Sirex cyaneus F. They were obtained from a coalhouse in Craigie
district from firewood which had been obtained locally. Mr. Blair,
of the British Museum, to whom I submitted a specimen, tells me
that it is a N. American species which is now to be found occasionally
in Britain.

Both the Convolvulus Hawk (Phlegethontius convolvuli) and the
Tiger (Chelonia caja) Moth were captured on several occasions.

Antiquarian members may be interested in the finds made at
the excavation in St. John’s Place, Perth, where the foundations
were being dug for a Picture Palace. The finds comprised ironwork
of various kinds, leather of shoes, scabbard, sheaths, etc., a hoard of
about 1128 gold and silver coins, and a beautiful bronze pot, all
belonging to the 15th. century.

JSmi(d>l]E,OX7JSM.OOI!) or IPEJRITn.

Plate 16.

hTritish
I museum
\

•. <M jVLAPT--

\ NATURAL

>. l , i s i 0 Fv i -

JAMES CRAIGIE OX THE CILIATA.

IO7

XI.— The Ciliata.

By James Craigie.

(Read 14th January, 1921.)

The Ciliata may be briefly defined as Protozoa which are
permanently provided with cilia. As their inclusion under the
Protozoa implies, they are unicellular organisms. But here we
look in vain for the simplicity of structure and function which
characterises the typical cell. Stein, in his “ Organismus der
Infusionsthiere,” remarked, “ The adult Infusoria must ever be
considered doubtful single-celled organisms, for they are not simply
cells that have undergone further development, but the original
cell-structure has given place to an essentially different organisa¬
tion entirely foreign to typical cells.” Nevertheless they are single
cells. But it is a far cry from the comparatively simple Amoeba to
Yorticella, which boasts, among other organs, a complicated
musculature and two nuclei of very different function ; where the
evolutionary impulse has obtained development, not by the tissue
method, but by the production of a complexity of intracellular
organs.

I he simplest part of a Ciliate is the body-substance or endo¬
plasm. As in all Protozoa, this is alveolar in structure. It may
be compared to an emulsion where fluid droplets are enclosed in
the meshes of a continuous, liquid, interalveolar substance. Only,
the alveoli are far from uniform in size and contain granules of
various kinds, inert and functionless or playing a definite part in
the cell economy. I he most important endoplasmic inclusions are
food particles in various stages of digestion and assimilation.
Reserve stores of food, fat globules, and waste and excretory
products are also found. Other inclusions are pigments derived
from the colouring matters of the food. In some species constant
coloured spots, aggregations of pigment granules, occur. Some¬
times various organisms are found living in the endoplasm. Green
algal cells, Zoochloi elite, are found in some species as symbionts.
Chlorella vulgaris, more often than not, occurs in Paramoecium
bursaria. It is injested with the food, but succeeds in resisting
digestion. Species of the suctoria pass their embryonic phases
m some of the Ciliata, especially Paramoecium and Stylonychia.
Occasionally bacteria gain entrance to the organism, and rapidly
multiplying , destroy it. A characteristic of endoplasm is its con-

ic8 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

stant movement, shown by the streaming- of the granules. This
circulation varies greatly in different species and at different times
in the same species, but never entirely ceases. Cvclosis, similar
to that seen in some plant cells, is well marked in some species,
e.g., Paramcecium bursaria.

The endoplasm, concerned directly with the assimilation of
food, shows little difference from that of Amoeba. It is in the
ectoplasm that we find the characters that sharply mark off the
Ciliata from other Protozoa. The seat of locomotion and reaction
to stimuli, it shows structural adaptation to environment in a
striking way. Excluding the dimorphic nuclei, all the organs
characteristic of the Ciliata arise from this outer layer.

Most external is the pellicle, homologous with the external
membrane of the metazoan cell. It is formed by the condensation
of the outer interalveolar lamellae. In the Hypotricha it lies
directly on the endoplasm and is usually thin and very flexible.
Usually, however, a cortical layer intervenes between it and the
endoplasm. Arising from the pellicle by conversion or secretion
we have the lorica or theca of Folliculina and Tintinnus, the jelly-
like matrix of Ophridium and the remarkable armour-plating of
Coleps. This latter is a tight-fitting, horny product, arranged in
four girdles composed of fifteen separate elongate pieces. Each
component has a straight and a serrated edge. The neighbouring-
pieces slightly overlap and the serrations provide gaps through
which the cilia protrude. In addition there are supplementary
candal and dentate mouth pieces. Striations — longitudinal, spiral,
or transverse — are well marked in some species. For the most
part they indicate the insertion of the cilia or are due to the
myonemes lying basal to them.

Lying internal to the pellicle is the important alveolar layer.
From it the myonemes and the cilia arise. The cilia appear to
be merely prolongations of it through the pellicle. They are fine,
similar, even threads of apparently homogenous structure, arranged
in rows. Yet in some unexplained way they are capable of regular
rapid motion. The movement of a cilium is one of rhythmic curva¬
ture and slower relaxation. They act together, not svchronouslv,
but in order, one slightly later than its predecessor, producing a
wave effect comparable to that of the wind on a field of corn.
Functionally, cilia may be divided into two groups; the body
system, locomotor in function, and the oral system, which wafts
a current of fluid with its suspended food particles towards the
mouth. Both systems are modified in various ways, and this
forms the basis of classification. Free-swimming forms, such

JAMES CRAIGIE OX THE Cl LI AT A.

ICQ

as Prorodon, are clothed completely with simple cilia, of even
length except for a slight elongation in the oral region. The
body cilia in forms which habitually live on a substratum and
are flattened tend to be confined to the ventral region, the dorsum
often being completely bare except for a few setse of evidently
tactile function. Or they may be reduced apart from this habit
of life, being completely absent during the sedentary stages of
some genera, e.g., Vorticella, or present as one or more girdles
in their migratory phases or permanently in other genera, e.g.,
Didinium.

In the more differentiated forms the body cilia are not present
as such, but are modified into organs called cirri, characteristically
found in the Hypotricha. By suitable treatment these organs may
be broken up into their component cilia. Sometimes they occur
with the end frayed out into their component parts. But they do not
develop by the fusion of tufts of cilia ; they arise from the ectoplasm
as cirri. In the Heterotricha and Hypotricha an adoral row of mem-
branelles is present. Like cirri they can be reduced to component
threads. They are plate like in form, and are composed of fused,
parallel, transverse lines of cilia. The third set of organs which
are modifications of the ciliary system are the undulating mem¬
branes. They are confined to the oral region and are primarily
formed by the fusion of longitudinal rows of cilia. They may be
present in the pharynx or at the edge of the mouth, e.g., in the
Trichostomata. Small and difficult to observe in some species,
they are a striking feature in others, such as Pleuronema chrysalis,
where an enormous protrusible bag can be extended before the
mouth. Membranes are also found in the Hypotricha, one being
present along the right peristome border. Finally they are present
in Peritricha, where they pursue a spiral course round the anterior
extremity, varing from B to 5 turns, and then dip down into
the mouth.

The myonemes are the contractile organs of the Ciliata. They
lie in the peripheral alveolar layer from which thev arise, though
they may be found displaced into the cortical layer, or even the
endoplasm. They lie in minute canals which, in some cases, thev
completely fill. The cilia seem to be connected with them by minute
fibrils. With one or two exceptions they are absent in the Holo-
tricha. Holophyra and Prorodon are the most notable. Among
the Heterotricha some species, e.g., Stentor, Spirostomum, are
extremely well endowed with myonemes. Contraction takes place
with lightning rapidity, rendering the task of fixation in the
extended sbite practically impossible except by special methods.

IIO TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

But it is in the Yorticellae and similar genera that \ve find the
highest development of the musculature. In this group the
sedentary zooid secretes a contractile stalk which can roll up
tightly in a spiral manner, this action being accompanied by a
sphincter-like action of the peristome collar enclosing the mouth
and disc. Apart from the musculature of the pedicle various sets
of myonemes are found in the zooid itself. Most easily found are
those fibres which run from the centre of the disc to its periphery,
then down the sides to the level of the origin of the secondary
ciliary girdle from where they converge to the attachment of the
pedicle and blend with the conspicuous muscle strand of the latter.
In addition to this, two circular and one longitudinal layers have
been described externally. A long fibre, winding spirally from the
posterior end to the centre of the disc, recorded by Lachmann and
also by Stein is considered by Entz to give the annulate appear¬
ance to the bell. The other circular layer, also composed of a
continuous fibre, lies deep in the peristome disc to which it is con¬
fined. Between these two sets fine longitudinal fibres run from
the centre of the disc to the posterior end. The stalk itself consists
of a flexible outer wall, containing a fluid substance in which the
mvoneme strands run. These are divisible into three sets ; a
longitudinal spasmoneme, the continuation of the inner long
myonemes of the bell, a coiled spironeme and an axoneme regarded
by Entz as a kind of nerve centre. They are obviously antagonistic
in action, but which is responsible for the retraction of the stalk
is an unsettled point.

The cortical layer lies intermediate between the alveolar layer
and the endoplasm. It forms a stratum of varying thickness,
sometimes distinguished with difficulty, occasionallv greatly
thickened and forming the denser parts of the body, e.g., the tail
of Stentor. In this layer are found the trichocysts and the
pulsating vacuoles. The trichocysts are minute rod or spindle-
shaped bodies lying* perpendicular to the surface, sometimes pro¬
jecting into the streaming endoplasm and occasionally carried
away by it. On irritation they explode and throw out threads
five to ten times their length. Their function is presumed to be,
for the greater part, defensive, but Maupas has described their
use as offensive weapons in some of the carnivorous Ciliata, which
employ them for paralysing their prey. They are not universally
present in the Ciliata ; it is in the Holotricha that they are found
most characteristically, where they may be distributed all over the
body or confined to special regions. One species of the Peritricha,
ATrticella umbellaria, carries even more deadly weapons — nemato-

JAMES CRAIGTE OX THE CILIATA.

I I I

cysts, ten to twenty in number. These, as in the Coelenterata,
contain a spirally wound thread which can be launched with deadly
effect.

The vast majority of the Ciliata are holozoic. in nutrition. Some
are truly parasitic, living in the contents of the alimentary tract
of animals, e.g. , Balantidium. Opalina, which inhabits the frog-,
has reached a degree of parasitism that it possesses no mouth,
but absorbs nutritive fluid through the whole body surface. Entz
records an interesting observation in Vorticella companula. He
found it coloured by a diffuse green pigment, and the animal, in
addition to feeding as such, able to assimilate like a plant. Some
Ciliata absorb all food matter that comes their way, be it animal
or plant. Others have an extremely limited dietary, such as
Actinobolus radians, which confines itself to feeding- on Halteria
grandinella. These it captures by the trichocysts situated in
batteries at the end of its protrusible tentacles.

Referring to the dominating character of the mouth in the
Ciliata, Manpas says, “ Nutrition in its manifold phases in these
minute beings absorbs and completes their entire existence. This
function assumes with them an intensity which, I believe, is
equalled nowhere else in the animal kingdom. They are gluttons
par excellence, absorbing and digesting night and day without
repose. It results that an apparatus charged with such an intense
function becomes modified, diversified, and developed to an
astonishing degree, especially striking when it is remembered that
they are unicellular organisms.” The primitive position of the
mouth is terminal, but it tends to be displaced backwards, some¬
times occupying the posterior third of the body. When not
terminal an adoral furrow of varying development may lead up
to it. The special adoral organs, the membranelles and mem¬
branes, have already been mentioned. These are absent in the
Gymnostomina, the more primitive of which have simply an aper¬
ture for a mouth and swallow their food. In this order a peculiar
accessory apparatus may be found in the pharynx. It consists of
bars secreted by the ectoplasm, which separate on food taking.
In the rest of the Ciliata the mouth is perpetually open to receive
the food particles swept towards it by the vibration of the adoral
organs. The mouth leads to a pharynx or oesophag-us of very
variable development which may bear cilia or membranes and
which opens into the endoplasm.

The current of fluid exerts a pressure on the exposed endoplasm
at the proximal end of the pharynx. A cavity is formed in which
the food particles collect. This vacuole, containing a certain

1 12 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

amount of fluid, is, after a period, dragged away by the streaming
of the plasm, and a new one forms. After a storage period, during
which the water is absorbed, the vacuole reforms. The food sub¬
stances are broken down by enzymes acting in an acid medium
and the products are absorbed. Proteins are the main nutritive
substances utilised. Emulsification of fats is disputed, but of the
carbohydrates starch can be partially digested. Undigested
residues are ejected by a special opening, the cytopyge.

As a result of the method of food taking a considerable amount
of water is absorbed. To get rid of this and the dissolved salts
is the first function of the pulsating vacuoles. Other functions
have been ascribed to them which, though not actually proved,
very probably are carried out. The end products of protein meta¬
bolism cannot be allowed to accumulate in the cell. From the
katabolism of the protein molecule in the higher animals the
purine derivatives are formed, and, one step further, urea.
Another inevitable result is the formation of carbon dioxide. As
far as our physiological knowledge goes we must assume that
these end products, purines and carbon dioxide, are formed in
the Protozoa. This matter cannot be discussed here, but the
interesting experiments of Griffiths may be mentioned, where in
Paramoecium and Yorticella he obtained, by the murexide test,
evidence of the presence of uric acid in the pulsating vacuoles
themselves.

The pulsating vacuoles vary in number from one to a hundred,
but they are fixed in position and are always situated in the
cortical plasm. From feeding canals, running in the cortical plasm,
fluid flows to the vacuole. Of these only the main and largest
are discernible, but probably there is an extensive system of fine
afferent branches. Certainly in some species numbers of canafs
can be rendered visible by special treatment where normally none
can be detected. Distinctive arrangements of canals and vacuole
can be seen in various species. Spirostomum has a terminal
vacuole and one long feeding canal running the length of the
body. Urocentrum has also a terminal vacuole, fed by four longi¬
tudinal canals. Two vacuoles with numerous canals are found in
Paramoecium. In Yorticella the vacuole is anterior, and discharges
into the vestibule which separates mouth and pharynx. Over the
site of the vacuole there is a minute pore in the pellicle, sealed
internally by a thin layer of plasm. As the fluid accumulates and
the vacuole increases in size this layer thins out. It finally gives
way and the fluid is discharged. Thus a rhythmic systole and
diastole take place. Some, including Delage, have invoked con-

JAMES CRAIGIE ON THE CILIATA.

1 13

tractility of the wall in explaining- the systole of the vacuole, but
for this there is little evidence.

One of the most striking- characteristics of the Ciliata is the
(normally) dimorphic nucleus. Opalina is probably the only form
in which it does not occur, and only one other Protozoon, Poly-
krikos, a flagellate, possesses such a differentiation. Chromatin,
the essential constituent of nuclei, is an absolute necessity for the
life of the cell. It may be active, functioning in the vegetative
processes and in simple division, or germinative, of potential
energy, giving rise to future vegetative chromatin in descendants
after passing through the mechanisms of nuclear division. By
separation and segregation of these two kinds the nuclear apparatus
of the Ciliata arises. The vegetative chromatin, actively participat¬
ing in the life of the cell, is present in the large macronucleus.
The macronucleus contains the dormant chromatin destined to
function in future cells.

The usual form of macronucleus is spherical or oval, but it
may assume most diverse shapes. It may be greatly elongated
and often flattened, usually curved, as in Euplotes and Vorticella.
In double or multiple nuclei, e.g., those of Stylonychia, Loxodes,
a membraneous filament connects the components. Two species
of Spirostomum show an interesting difference. S. teres has
simply an elongate nucleus, while in the closely similar S. am-
biguum it is moniliform or beaded. This beading- is also found
in the common species Stentor. With the exception of Loxo-
phyllum, . where a permanent spireme is present, the structure of
the macronucleus is almost invariably alveolar. It appears solid
and completely filled with chromatin. During division the
chromatin granules are connected by a linin reticulum. nuclear
membrane is always present.

The micronuclei are often multiple. As their name implies
they are bodies considerably smaller than the macronuclei. Their
size ranges from i-io^. Hard to stain and usually lying attached
in a small hollow in the macronucleus, they are often difficult to
detect. Generally the chromatin is not uniformly distributed but
is massed at some point and achromatin occupies the residual
space. Division, which is preceded by enlargement, is by mitosis.
Polar attraction spheres form and the chromatin is grouped into
chromosomes.

In the majority of macronuclei division is much simpler. It is
probably, not by amit'osis, strictly speaking, but by a degenerate
form of mitosis of which only the initial stages remain. We
find all degrees of complexity in the mechanism, from a simple

I 14 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

drawing- out into two equal parts to the metazoic-like process in
Spiroehona. Both nuclei divide in simple division. In this process
the fission of the cell is transverse (longitudinal in Vorticella, etc.).
As the nuclear division proceeds a new adoral zone is formed in
the posterior body-half. The pulsating vacuoles and other organs
are reduplicated. The constriction of the body increases until a
fine thread connects the daughter cells. The strain of the swim¬
ming movements, which are uninterrupted during division, finally
ruptures the connecting strand and the cells separate to lead in¬
dependent lives. Unequal division, in some forms, simulates
buckling-, e.g., Spiroehona.

The question of senescence and rejuvenescence in the Protozoa
has been the subject of much interesting controversy. From their
methods of division they are potentially immortal, for no part of
the original organism is lost ; all descendent cells have the same
faculty of dividing. Yet after a varying number of divisions,
usually 300-500, cleg'enerative changes appear. Weakness, dwarf¬
ism, and deformity are the visible signs of this, comparatively
speaking, old age, a senility corresponding to that, not of an
individual of the higher animals, but of the germ plasm itself.
However, this senescence does not inevitably result in death.
Normally vitality is restored by a rejuvenating mechanism known
as conjugation. The essence of it is nuclear reorganisation.

Briefly, the process is as follows. The conjugants partly fuse
together, usually in the oral region, and the opposed ectoplasmic
surfaces are absorbed. The macronucleus disintegrates and dis¬
appears. The micronuclei involved divide two or more times.
All the resultants of each degenerate except one. This remaining
one divides into two pronuclei. Migration of one of each pair of
pronuclei over into the other conjugant follows. Denoting the
pairs as follows : a, a' ; b, b' ; exchange brings about this arrange¬
ment : b, a' ; a, W. These pairs now fuse together and by further
division give origin to new macro- and micro-nuclei. Their
nuclear apparatus restored, the conjugants separate and resume
division. The conjugants are usually of the same dimensions.
But macro- and micro-conjugants are found, e.g., in the Vorti-
cellidse. Some species of Epistylis afford typical examples. The
microgametes develop in fours or eights. They leave the parent
colony and swim actively about by means of a posterior girdle of
cilia. Ultimately they fuse permanently with a stalked macro¬
gamete.

The primary function of this mechanism is the restoration of
vital power which somehow or other gradually weakens as an un-

JAMES CRAIGIE OX THE Cl LI AT A.

JI5

interrupted series of simple divisions proceeds. Whether sen¬
escence is an inevitable concomitant of protoplasmic activity, or
whether it can be indefinitely postponed by environment, artificial
or otherwise, is a question by no means absolutely settled. But
this much is certain, that the phenomenon is normally of constant
occurrence in the Ciliata, and, what is more important, is, by
conjugntion, rapidly and effectively combated.

Encystment is a process almost peculiar to the Protozoa. With
exceptions such as Macrobiotus and some of the Rotifers, it is
unknown in the Metazoa. In the Ciliata it usually occurs when
the organism is in danger of drying or when the environment
becomes too foul. But it may take place after engorgement with
food or before division. The process is preceded by a gradual
slowing of movement. The mouth disappears, the ciliary append¬
ages are absorbed, body inclusions are voided, and a gelatinous
casing is secreted. This hardens to a chitinous cyst, rounded and
variously decorated with spines. The only nuclear change is a
slight decrease in size. For a time the pulsating vacuole continues
to function, expelling fluid between the organism and the cyst wall.

To this protective faculty of encystment the wide distribution
of the Ciliata is partly due. When, say, a pool dries up, their
microscopic, resistant cysts are scattered far and wide by the
wind. A suitable environment being reached, the cyst is ruptured
and the organism resumes an active existence after redeveloping
its appendages. Another factor is the wide range of fluid media
to which they can adapt themselves, this of course excluding the
parasitic forms inhabiting- the Metazoa. Cold reduces their
activity, but most survive temperatures approaching freezing point.
Enchelys, Nassula, and Amphileptus have been reported from the
waters of the Ischian hot springs. Very many species are both
marine and fresh water. The salt concentration of the medium
can experimentally be greatly varied, provided the transition be
continuous and gradual enough. They have even been accustomed
to normally toxic concentrations of such substances as mercuric
chloride. But they will not survive in chemically pure water or
in fluid containing too great an amount of toxic organic matter.
Add their power of rapid multiplication to their air-borne method
of distribution and their wide range of environment and you have
the explanation of their sudden appearance in a suitable medium,
a phenomenon which, in spite of the work of Spallanzani, did so
much to delay the full exceptance of Harvey’s axiom, ex ovo omnia *

Il6 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

LIST OF SPECIES OF INFUSORIA FOUND IN DISTRICT

ROUND PERTH.

Sub-Class I. CILIA TA .

Order I. HOLOTRICHA. Except for a tendency to lengthen
in the vicinity of the mouth, the cilia are similar in size. In typical
forms they completely clothe the body, but in others they may be
restricted to special regions.

Sub -Order i. Gymnostomata. The mouth remains closed
except during the ingestion of food. It has no undulating membrane
connected with it.

Family i. Enchelidse. The month is terminal or sub-terminal;
the pharynx tubular and usually straight.

Holophrya ovum, Ehrbg. E., T. , W.

H. discolor, Ehrbg.

E-, M.,P-Q.

Orotricha lagenula. Ehrbg.

p-Q.

Enchelys farcimen, Ehrbg.

P-O., B.

Prorodom teres, Ehrbg.

W., M., P-Q., M-M.

P. margaritifer, C. & L.

W., E.,

P. nlveus, Ehrbg.

M-M.

Lagynus ocellatus, Daday.

W.

Lacry maria olor, O.F.M.

E., W., M., P-O.,
M-M.

Plagiopogon coleps, Stein.

p-Q.

Coleps hirtus, O.F.M.

W., M., P-Q.

C. uncinatus, C. & L.

E., W., B., P-Q.,
M-M.

Didinium nasutum, O.F.M.

W.

D. balbiani, Butsch.

B., M-M.

Mesodinium pulex, C. & L.

W., T.

M. a car us, Stein.

M.

Family 2. Trachelidae. The body is

distinctly bilateral or

asymmetrical, usually compressed. There
prolongation in connection with the mouth.

is often a proboscoid

Lionotus fasciola, Ehrbg.

E., W., M., T.

L. varsaviensis, Wrz.

W. , T.

Loxophyllum meleagris, Ehrbg.

E., W., M.

L. armatum, C. & L.

M.

Trachelius ovum, Ehrbg.

M., T., M-M.

Dileptus anser, O.F.M.

T., W., P-Q.

D. anas, O.F.M.

W.

Loxodes rostrum, O.F.M.

E-, W., P-Q.

JAMES CRAIGIE ON THE CILIATA.

117

Family 3. Chlamydodontidae. The body is reiniform or oval,
often flattened, in which case the dorsal cilia are reduced or entirely
absent. A smooth tube or a rod- armature supports the pharynx.

Nassula ornata, Ehrbg. T., M.

Chilodon cucullus, O.F.M. W., M., B., M-M.

Sub-order 2. Trichostomata. The mouth is always open, its
borders or the pharynx being supplied with one or more undulating
membranes.

Family 1. Chi lifer id ae. The peristome area is absent or only
slightly developed. The mouth is in the anterior body-half or close
to the middle.

Triohoda pura, Ehrbg.

B.

Glaucoma seintillans, Ehrbg.

T-,

B., M.,

P-Q.

Fronton! a leucas, Ehrbg.

E.,

W., M-

M.

Colpidium colpoda, Ehrbg.

E.,

W., T.,

P-Q.

Plagiopyla nasuta, Stein.

T.,

P-Q-

Loxooephalus granulosus, S.K.

M.,

M-M.

Colpoda cucullus, Ehrbg.

W.

, M.

Family 2. Microthoracidae. Markedly asymmetrical. The
mouth is in the posterior body-half. Cilia often reduced.

Cinetochilum margaritaceum, Ehrbg. T. , B. , P-Q., W.

Family 3. Paramaecidae. Peristome area large, triangular.
Thickly and evenly ciliate. Pharynx tubular and bearing an undu¬
lating membrane, usually of considerable length.

Partamaecium aureliiia, O.F.M. T. , W., P-Q.

P. caudatum, Ehrbg. E., W., M., B.,

P-Q. , T.

P. bursaria, Ehrbg. E., M., M-M.. P-Q.

P. putrinum, C. & L. B.

Family 4. Urocentridae. With discrete ciliary fields, chiefly
two broad encircling bands. Mouth ventral, central. Pharynx
long and tubular.

Urocentrum turbo, Ehrbg. E., W., T.

Family 5. Pleuronemidae. The pharynx is not infrequently
absent. From the left border of the peristome an undulating
membrane arises, sometimes encircling its posterior end. The right
border has a less developed membrane or a row of cilia.

Lembadion, bullinum, O.F.M. B.

Pleuronema chrysalis, Ehrbg. W., T.

Cyclidium glaucoma, Ehrbg. E., W. , M., P-Q.

I 1 8 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

Family 7. Opalinidae. The main characteristic is the absence
of mouth and pharynx.

Opalina ranarum, Purkj. Parasite of Frog-.

Order II. HETEROTRICHA. Possessing a sinistropic adoral
zone of membranelles.

Sub-order 1. Polytricha. Ciliary coating uniform.

Family 1. Plagiotomidai. Peristome narrow, gutter-like.
Mouth situated centrally or in posterior body-half.

Conchophthirius anodontae, Ehrbg.

Blepharisma lateritia, Ehrbg.
Metopus sigmoides, C. & L.
Spirostomum ambiguum, Ehrbg.

S. teres, C. & L.

Body mucilage of
fresh-water mussel.
B., M-M.

E., T., W., B.

E. , M. , M-M.

W., T., M.

Family 2. Bursaridae. Peristome broadly triangular and deeply
excavate.

Balantidium coli, Malm. Parasite of Pig.

Condylostoma stagnale, Wrz. M., M-M.

Family 3. Stentoridae. Adoral spiral well developed. Peri¬
stome small, displaced anteriorly, so that in some cases its plane is
at right angles to the longitudinal axis of the body.

Climacostomum virens, Ehrbg.

W.

Stentor polymorphus, O.F.M.

E., I., T. , M-M. , P-Q

S. niger, Ehrbg.

M-M.

S. caeruleus, Ehrbg.

T.

Caenomorpha medusula, Perty.

W., P-Q., M-M.

Sub-order 2. Oltgotricha. Cilia reduced and limited to certain
areas.

Family 2. Halteridae. No paroral cilia ; any body cilia present
take the form of leaping setae.

Hal ter i a grandinella, O.F.M. W., B., P-Q.

Strombidium claparedi, S.K. P-Q.

Family 3. Timtinnidse. Paroral cilia present, body attached by
a stalk to a theca.

Tintinmdium fluviatilis, Stein. P-Q.

Order III. HYPOTRICHA. Characterised by dorso-ventral
flattening and marked differentiation of the cilia. Except for the
presence of dorsal bristles, the cilia are confined to the ventral sur¬
face, are frequently fused to form cirri, etc., and form a sometimes
very complicated oral system.

JAMES CRAIG1E ON THE CILIATA.

II9

Family 2. Oxytrichidae. Fusioin of cilia more or less extensive ;
in primitive forms, almost invariably, the frontal and posterior cilia
are differentiated. Contractile-vacuole and nucleus situated on the
left side.

K aroma polyporum, Ehrbg.

T.

Urostyla grandis, Ehrbg.

M.

Sticihotricha secunda, Perty.

M., W.

Amphisia diademata, Rees.

W.

Uroleptds piscis, O.F.M.

W., M., P-Q.

U . violaceus, Stein.

T

U. ratulus, Stein.

W.

Pleurotricha lanceolata, Ehrbg.

M-M.

Gastrostyla steinii, Eng.

P-Q. , W.

Oxytricha ferruginea, Stein.

M.

O. pellionella, O.F.M.

B., W., P-Q.

O. parallela, Eng.

B. P-Q.

Stylonychia mytilus, Ehrbg.

B., W., M.. P-<

S. pustulata, Ehrbg.

B., E., I., M., I

P-Q., T., W

S. histrio, Ehrbg.

W., M.

Family 3. Euplotidae. Cilia and cirri considerablv reduced, but

the anal cirri are always present,
the right side.

Euplotes charon, O.F.M.
E. patella, Ehrbg.
Aspidisca costata, Duj.

A. turrita, C. & L.

Contractile vacuole situated on

B., M., W., P-Q.
W., P-Q
T.. P-Q., W.

W.

Order IV. PERITRICHA. Adoral zone a dexiotropic spiral.
Body cilia absent or present as secondary girdles.

Family 3. Vorticellidas. Sedentary forms with a temporary or
permanent secondary girdle of cilia.

Sub-family 1. Urceolarimse. Secondary girdle permanent,
enclosing an adhesive disc.

Trichodina pediculus, Ehrbg. I., T.

Sub-family 2. Vorticellinse. Secondary girdle not permanent.
A contractile peristome fold encloses the peristome. Often attached

120 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

through the medium of a pedicle, branching or unbranched, rigid
or contractile.

Scyphidia physarum, C. & L.

T.

S. rugosa, Duj.

p-Q.

Gerda glans, C. & L.

T.

Vorticella nebulifera, Ehrbg.

I., M., T.

V. alba, From.

E., B.

V. telescopica, S.K.

P-Q.

V. campanula, Ehrbg.

E., I., T., P-O.

V. nutans, O.F.M.

W., B.

V. microstoma, Ehrbg.

E., T., M-M.

V. convallaria, Linn.

p-Q.

V. spectabilis, S.K.

T.

Carchesium polvpinum, Linn.

T.

C. lachmanni, S.K.

I.

Zoothamnium simplex, S.K.

E.

Z. affine, Stein.

p-Q.

Episitylis digitalis, Ehrbg.

P-Q., T.

E. steinii, Wrz.

E.

E. fiavicans, C. & L.

I.

E. umbilicata, C. & L.

T.

E. anastatica, Linn.

T., P-Q.

E. plicatilis, Ehrbg.

T.

Rhabdostyla ovum, S.K.

P-O.

Opercularia lichtensteinii, Stein.

T.

Cothurnia imberbis, Ehrbg.

P-Q.

Yaginicola crystallina, Ehrbg.

W.

Sub-Class II. SUCTORIA.

Family 4. Podophryidae. More or less globular in shape,

stalked or unstalked. Tentacles numerous,

may be confined to the

apical region, styliform and capitate.

Sphaerophrya pusilla, C. & L.

W. , Host. — Paramae-
cium caudatum.

S. stylonvchias, S.K.

M., Host. — Stylony-
chia mytilus.

Podophrya steinii, C. & L.

M-M.

P. carchesii, C. & L.

T.

P. mollis, S.K.

w.

P. cyclopum, C. & L.

P-Q.

Family 5. Acinetidae. Tentacles capitate, numerous. Thecate,

stalked or unstalked. Division endogenous.

Acineta lemnarum Stein.

T.

JAMES CRAIGIE ON THE CILLATA.

12 I

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS.

B. Newhouse Quarry, Burghmuir.

E. Backwaters of River Earn, 2 miles above Bridge of Earn.
I. Pond, North Inch.

M. Ponds, North of Deuchnv Wood.

M-M. Methven Moss.

P-Q. Perch Quarry, Muirhall.

T. Overflow of Lade, Tulloch.

W, Woody Island.

The above list, although it can make no pretence of being- an
exhaustive one, considering- the class of organisms with which it
deals, gives, at least, an indication of the commoner species which
may be met with in this district. The localities from which the
material was drawn show considerable differences. The ponds north
of Deuchny Wood disappear completely after a spell of dry weather,
and each time they reform the dilate population has to develop from
cysts, air borne or survivals from a previous fauna. The other
localities never dry up completely and provide hauls most of the
year round. Certain sedentary types can always be obtained from
the overflow of the Lade at the Tulloch. It is well aerated by a
plentiful growth of Canadian pond weed, and the bottom is covered
with a rich stratum of decomposing organic material. In marked
contrast to this is the small side stream at the Woody Island. It
offers a suitable multiplying ground for organisms carried down
by the Tay, and as regards population is the scene of Incessant
change. Most of the species of Hypotricha recorded have been
obtained from it though they never occurred in any numbers.

The record of species dates from the late summer of 1919. The
examination of material was, at first, carried out in the Museum,
and for the facilities for the work the writer desires to express his
thanks to the Town Council and to Mr. Ritchie, to the latter, in
addition, for his liberal assistance and advice.

12 2

TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

XII. — .4 Descriptive Catalogue of Stone Implements in the

Perth Museum.

By John Asher, F.S.A.Scot.

(Read nth February, 192 r.)

This Catalogue has been prepared for the purpose of introducing
members of the Perthshire Society of Natural Science to the study of
stone implements, and of persuading them to use their influence in
procuring additions to the Museum Collection.

The student of antiquities is generally a collector, and he should
riemember that the chief object in collecting stone implements is not
to amass specimens, but to ascertain and record the facts connected
with them. All the circumstances relating to the discovery of a tool
should be noted, particularly its position and association with any
weapons or ornaments that may be discovered along with it.
Without such information, isolated specimens are of little scientific
value. Placed in a museum, however, beside similar objects whose
records are known, a stone implement may, by comparison, have a
story to tell. In particular, the recording of Perthshire antiquities
Is desirable . and with the aid of the Society it should be possible to
make the Archaeological Collections in the Museum completely
representative of the antiquities of the county.

In this list the objects are described in the order of their Museum
numbers, so that the note on each implement may be readily found.
There are in the library of the Society copies of all the publications
to which reference is made.

I am indebted to the President of the Society, Mr. George F.
Bates, B.A., B.Sc.., for the identification of many of the stone
materials. Mr. Bates points out that it is almost impossible to speak
with certainty of the exact classification of the stone in many cases,
as it is not possible to submit the rock to detailed examination.
I am indebted also- to Mr. John Ritchie, F.R.A.I., Curator of the
Museum, for photographing specimens, and to Mr. R. R. Boog'
Watson for looking up references in the Reports of the Smithsonian
Institution.

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Stone Implements (Plate I.).

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Plate 18, [ Photo by J. Ritchie

Stone Implements (Plate II.).

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Plate 19. [Photo, by J. Ritchie.

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XIII. — Note on Sarcoscypha protracta (Fr.) Sacc., in Perthshire.

By James Menzies.

(Read 8th April, 1921.)

Mr. Menzies reported having received specimens of this fungus
from Dunkeld, where it had been discovered in Inver Wood. He
stated that we were indebted for the discovery of this fine addition
to the Fungus Flora of the County to a lady, Mrs. O’Callagan,
temporarily resident in that locality, and interested in fungi. She
submitted her specimens to Mr. Charles MTntosh, who determined
the species. In its brilliant colour and white tomento-se exterior
the plant has some resemblance to the well-known Sarcoscypha
coccinta. but easily separated from that species by its slender stem,
in growing on the ground, and microscopically by the very large
sporidia. The fungus is rare in Britain, and so far as is known
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J. R. MATTHEWS - DISTRIBUTION OF THE PERTHSHIRE FLORA. 151

The Distribution of the Perthshire Flora.
By J. R. Matthews, M.A., F.L.S.

(Read 7th April, 1922.)

Introduction.

During the past fifty or sixty years, the geographical distribution
of plants has. attracted a considerable amount of attention, and an
increasing interest in the subject has been apparent of late by the
publication of numerous papers relating to distributional problems
in different parts of the world. In the opinion of some writers the
subject remains still the fundamental problem in Evolution, “ that
grand subj'ect, that almost keystone of the laws of creation,” as
Darwin wrote to Sir Joseph Hooker. In the Origin of Species , one
of the most remarkable contributions ever made towards a solution
of the great problems of Evolution, Darwin summarises his own
views on the subject as follows : — “ If the difficulties be not
insuperable in admitting that in the long course of time all
individuals of the same species, belonging to the same genus, have
proceeded from one source, then all the grand leading facts of
geographical distribution are explicable on the theory of migration,
together with subsequent modification and1 the multiplication of new
forms. ”

By different authors the subject has been treated along different
lines. On a broad ecological basis we have the well-known volumes
of Schimper, Warming and others, while from a more geological
aspect we have English contributions associated with such names
as Edward Forbes, Darwiln, Wallace, Hooker, Clement Reid, and
Guppy, to mention only a few. The last named author has elaborated
a “ Theory of Differentiation ” in his interesting volume, Plants,
Seeds, and Currents in the West Indies and Azores. Dr. Guppy’s
ideas are not far removed from those of Dr. Willis who, in a long
series of papers which have appeared in recent years, has brought
into prominence a theory which he has termed “ Age and Area,”
a theory based on much statistical evidence derived from a study
of the distribution of plants in Ceylon,, New Zealand and its
neighbouring islands. The “ Age and Area ” hypothesis is now
accepted by many as an established law in plant distribution. Put
briefly, it states that the older a species is in a country the wider
will be its range. This, as the main contention, is what one would
expect, but the problem of distribution is so complex that it is

N

152 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

doubtful if any single hypothesis will provide the whole solution.
Later we shall notice in greater detail the “ Ag-e and Area ” law
when we come to consider its applicability to the Perthshire Flora,
for my present purpose is not the discussion of geographical distribu¬
tion on the grand scale, but an enquiry into certain aspects of the
distribution of the native plants of our own county of Perth.
Though the investigation be thus circumscribed, it remains
essentially a part of the greater problem and in particular it is
intimately bound up with distribution in Britain as a whole.

Distribution of Plants in Britain.

The origin and distribution of the British Flora has been the
subject of much writing and discussion, and the question is yet so
far from being answered conclusively that a brief review of the
opinions expressed by leading authorities may here be allowed.

According to one school of thought the rigours of the dim, ate
during the Ice Age were such as to destroy the great bulk, if not
all, of Britain’s pre-glacial flora, which seems to have resembled
very closely the present plant population, although, according to
Clement Reid (1908) it was slightly more temperate. But to what
extent exactly did glaciation destroy the earlier flora is just the
question which has evoked considerable difference of opinion. It
may be that a definite answTer is impossible. Yet until some general
agreement is reached on this fundamental question, all attempts
to trace the migration of the re-distributed flora must be largely
speculative. Mr. Clement Reid (1911), it is true, is emphatic in
maintaining that the starting-point is perfectly definite. “ We have
merely to account,” he says, “ for the incoming of our existing
flora, after an earlier assemblage had been swept away almost as
completely and effectually as the celebrated volcanic eruption wiped
out the plants of Krakatoa. ” If this view be the correct one the
problem is certainly simplified, for if all the pre-glacial plants were
destroyed, we must look mainly to those parts of the European
continent which escaped the extreme climatic conditions of the Ice
Age for the source of that flora which re-populated our islands after
the cold period passed away. While Clement Reid strongly believes
in the destruction of the flora during the Ice Age, he does not
necessarily accept a theory involving re-immigration over land
connections. Rather he believes that the steady change and increase
of our flora may be sufficiently explained by chance and occasional
introduction of seeds, due mainly to birds driven by exceptional
gales, although other animals have played their part, especially
when the .Straits of Dover vTere much narrower or non-existent.

But well-known peculiarities in the distribution of certain
elements of our flora have made it difficult for some to accept Reid’s

J. R. MATTHEWS - DISTRIBUTION OF THE PERTHSHIRE FLORA. I 53

views entirely. Mr. Lloyd Praeger (1910) contends that the
Portuguese and Iberian plants of the south-west of Ireland are ‘ ‘ relics
of a vegetation which once spread along a bygone European coast¬
line which stretched unbroken from Ireland to Spain.” This
conclusion agrees with that of Edward Forbes, who, in a remarkable
paper published in 1846, argued that the Lusitanian element in
south-west Ireland constitutes the oldest portion of the British
Flora, its limitations and isolation pointing to its antiquity. Dr.
Scharff on zoological grounds has arrived at similar conclusions,
believing that the mass of the fauna (and therefore the flora)
survived the Glacial Period in Ireland.

If this be so, one would expect that at least in the southern
fringe of England, which was iceless, a considerable flora would
certainly survive, and for information regarding the nature and
extent of such a flora we have to turn to- the succession of events
as traced in the geological record. A large amount of work has
been done in the study of plant-bearing deposits of glacial and post¬
glacial times, and it is impossible here to do more than mention the
results of but a few investigators. The whole matter, too, is
complicated from the point of view of plant distribution by the fact
that divergent opinions are held regarding the number and extent
of glacial phases.

In 1888 Reid and Ridley gave an account of fossil plants obtained
from the lacustrine deposit at Hoxne in Suffolk. The basal beds
contained temperate plants, but above these an arctic plant -bed
occurred bearing such plants as Salix polaris, S. herbacea, S.
myrsinites , and Betiila nana. This in itself would seem sufficient
evidence to show that in the south of England a change from
temperate to arctic conditions had taken place in glacial times.
More recently, remains of arctic plants have been found in alluvial
deposits in Devon, and though plants have not been obtained,
remains of arctic mammals occur in profusion in Wiltshire (Reid,
1911). Still more recently, Prof. J. E. Marr and Miss E. W.
Gardner (1916), in an examination of Pleistocene deposits around
Cambridge have revealed the existence of an arctic flora in the
Barinwell-Station pit which they have referred to- “ one of the latest,
if not the latest stage, of the Pleistocene deposits of the district.”
This arctic flora has been fully described in an interesting paper
by Miss M. E. J. Chandler (1921), and comparison is drawn wdth the
arctic plant-bed of the Lea Valley described by Mr. C. Reid (1916).
The flora of the Cam Valley, as seen in the Barnwell Bed, though
including numerous temperate plants, is distinctly more arctic in
character than that of the Lea Valley, but there is yet insufficient
evidence to say Vh ether the Cam \'ralley flora existed during a period
of maximum cold or whether it lived before or after the climax of
a glacial period.

154 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

In Scotland, attention was drawn by Bennie (1894) to the
occurrence of arctic plant-beds, resting directly upon the boulder
clay, in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, and again, in 1896, to
similar lacustrine deposits near Auchtertool in Fifeshire. These
deposits provided, among some two- dozen species determined, Salix
herbacea , S. polaris, and S. reticulata. During the period 1905 to
1911 extensive investigations of the plant-remains in the Scottish
peat mosses were carried out by F. J. Lewis, whose results have
been published in a series of papers in the Transactions of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh. The chief stages in the general sequence
of vegetation, over the areas studied, since the later phases of the
glacial period are summarised by Lewis as follows : —

1 . An arctic-alpine vegetation resting on the moraine laid down

by the last mer de glace.

2. A forest of birch and hazel.

3. A layer of arctic-alpine plants occurring down to sea-level

in Shetland.

4. A forest of pine, birch and hazel occurring up to 3,200 feet

above sea-level.

5. A layer of peat accumulated from the period of stage 4 to

the present day, consisting entirely of moorland plants.

These changes are described bv Lewis as post-glacial “ in the
sense that they occurred later than the last ice-sheet.” The suc-
cessional development indicated by the several stages clearly points
to climatic fluctuations which must have been sufficiently long and
pronounced to change the distribution of the flora in the north of
Britain. But the stages do not give any information about the chain
of events during the maximum glaciation of the country. “ The
first arctic bed contains an arctic-alpine flora which existed over
wide areas near sea-level, but it is impossible to say from the
evidence of the plants whether all traces of glaciation had vanished
from Britain at that time or whether certain regions were still under
ice. ”

Investigations similar to those of Lewis and with somewhat

o

similar results have been conducted on the Continent especially in
Denmark and Scandinavia. A comparison of all the results has
been made by Samuelssoo, while an interesting review and dis¬
cussion is to be found in a recent paper by Wille (1915) on the Flora
of Norway and its immigration. It is difficult, however, to correlate
results without definite knowledge of the age of the several deposits
which have been described, yet the prevalence of a pronounced arctic
flora — the Dryas flora — towards the close of the last glacial stage
suggests that only arctic species, if any, could have survived the

J. R. MATTHEWS - DISTRIBUTION OF THE PERTHSHIRE FLORA. 1 55

period of maximum glaciation, at least in northern latitudes. The
possibility of survival of a considerable assemblage in the south of
England is suggested by the association of arctic and temperate
plants found in the Pleistocene Beds of the Cam \/Talley, so that from
the south of England, and not exclusively from the Continent,
migration northwards miay have commenced after the retreat of
the ice-sheet.

I should like to suggest, also, that the problem before us cannot
be divorced from a consideration of the views of anthropologists
on the movements of man in Britain. A discussion at the recent
meeting of the British Association in Edinburgh on the origin of
the Scottish people is interesting in this connection in giving the
latest opinions regarding the arrival of man in Scotland. It has
been estimated that about 13,000 years have elapsed since the
beginning of emergence of Scotland and Scandinavia from the ice
cap of the last glacial period, and while some contend that man
existed in Scotland as far back as 10,000 years ago, while the
Highland valleys were filled with ice, others make the date more
recent by a few thousand years. Wille, in the paper already cited,
states that man has lived in Norway about 7,000 years. These
figures are interesting even if they give but an approximation to
the length of time during which the migrations of man must also
have affected, directly or indirectly, the migrations of plants. It
will be acknowledged, at all events, that within historic time man’s
activities have profoundly influenced plant distribution within our
own country.

I have ventured to give this brief and incomplete outline of the
historical succession not because of any positive conclusions that
can be reached, but because of the importance of bearing in mind
what evidence we do possess regarding the changes in distribution
which plants must have undergone in comparatively recent times.

Thirty-one years have elapsed since Dr. Buchanan White
delivered a Presidential Address to this Society on the Origin of
the Flora of Perthshire. The address, which was published in the
Society’s Proceedings (1891) and later in the Flora itself, contains
the following sentences : — “ I have been speaking of the British
Flora and Britain, but with the object of attempting to show that
what concerned these in remote ages may have a more modern

application to the Perthshire flora and to Perthshire .

Perthshire is not cut off by the sea from the rest of Britain, there¬
fore the methods by which the British Flora reached Britain, when
there was a land connection, may have always been, and still be,
operative as regards Perthshire in relation to the rest of Britain,
provided that climatic conditions are favourable and that there is
room.” Dr. White’s paper concludes with a detailed account of
all the species having doubtful claims to be native within the
county.

156 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

To endeavour to trace the arrival and past migrations of the
several species which now comprise the flora of Perthshire would
be an arduous, if not impossible task, although I can imagine no
more interesting or instructive aspect of Field Botany than that
which seeks to follow the migration of plants to-day. But in the
following pages I shall endeavour to indicate the mass distribution
of the present flora of our county and, as far as possible, use the
available data to illustrate some of the more recent views regarding
problems of distribution.

General Analysis of the Perthshire Flora.

As a basis for analysis the “ Flora of Perthshire ’ ’ and “ Ad¬
ditions to the List of Perthshire Plants ” have been used. Flower¬
ing plants only are dealt with, and with few exceptions only species
appearing under the usual “ formula ” in the “ Flora ” have been
admitted to the list which has been compiled. Aliens and most of
the doubtful natives have thus been excluded. It has been neces¬
sary further to modify the list in regard to the number of species
admitted under critical genera. In Hieracium, Rabus and Salix
no attempt has been made to include all the micro-forms or hybrids
since their distribution in Britain is incompletely known. With
these and a few other unimportant modifications, the list of
Flowering Plants in Perthshire reaches a total of 738 species.

Estimates of the total British Flora vary according to opinion
regarding the value to be attached to certain species, particularly
those of critical genera, and according to varying opinion regarding
the indigeneity of numerous species. For my own purposes, taking
a somewhat conservative view, I have placed the number of British
flowering plants at 1377, of which England possesses 1295, Scot¬
land 1026, and Ireland 942. These figures themselves point to the
thinning out of our flora as distance from tne main centre of dis¬
tribution increases. As the British flora may be regarded as a
reduced Continental one, so may the Scottish flora be looked upon
as a reduced English flora, for numerous species do not cross the
border, although the arctic element is distinctive in being more
fully represented in Scotland. When we proceed as far north as
Perthshire, we find the flora still further reduced, due partly, of
course, to the much more limited area involved, but also to the
fact that numerous plants which reach Scotland do not appear
farther north than the Border or Lowland provinces of Watson.

On the basis of the figures given above, then, the Perthshire
flora constitutes about 54 per cent, of the entire British flora, and
about 72 per cent, of the total Scottish flora.

Within the Watsonian vice-counties of Perthshire, the 738
species of the local flora are distributed as follows : — 601 in 87
iWest Perth, 693 in 88 Mid Perth, and 684 in 89 East Perth.

J. R. MATTHEWS - DISTRIBUTION OF THE PERTHSHIRE FLORA. I 57

Mid Perth is thus shown to be the richest of the three vice¬
counties, but if the arctic flora, which is centred in this area, be
excluded, it will be found that East Perth is not poorer but richer
in actual number of species. This fact is of considerable interest,
for the concentration of the flora east of the rivers Tay and Garry
suggests questions regarding the points of arrival and further
migration of plants within the county. These matters will receive
fuller consideration when further details of regional distribution
have been given.

Regional Distribution in Perthshire.

The figures given for the three Watsonian vice-counties of
Perthshire fail to illustrate certain interesting distributional features
which become obvious when the divisions employed in Dr. White’s
Flora are adopted. For the purpose of indicating the range of
each species, the county is divided first into two regions — Lowland
and Highland — these being separated by a line which follows the
“ Great Fault ” passing across the county from north-east to
south-west. These two primary divisions are further sub-divided
according to the drainage system into five districts in the Lowland
area and eight in the Highland. We will not enter here into the
geological and topographical features of the several districts, these
and other topics being fully discussed in the Flora itself. It will
be useful, however, to recall and reproduce certain facts given by
Dr. White, and these are presented in Table I.

TABLE I.

District.

Area in
sq. ml.

Area

above

1 000 feet
in

sq. ml.

Area
above
2000 feet
in

sq. ml.

Area
above
3000 feet
in

sq. ml.

Highest
point
in feet.

Feaks
above
3000 feet

Lowland .

"Forth, -
Earn,

Perth, -

Isla, ...

Gowrie, -

296

220

93

144

89

70

20

3

4

I

1

20

I

1

T<7

O

0

O

O

O

O

O

O

2363

2179

1098

I235

1235

O

O

O

O

O

Total for Lowland area, -

i ' 842

91

I

O

0

Highland <

"Forth, ...

Earn, -
Perth, -
Isla,

Lomond,

Breadalbane, -
Rannoch,

Atholl, -

167

L35

142

222

33

443

3 10

293

93

100

107

J74

2S

340

235

272

l6

15

15

30

6

90

42

100

1

1

8

. » l . ; •

O

i

1

8

9

2

4

3 82 7

,3224

3048

3445

3708

3984

3757

3671

7

3

1

5

7

. 34

16

16

iotal for Highland area, -

*747

L34^

3*4

17.

89

158 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

The position of the thirteen districts and the area above 1,000
and above 3,000 feet are indicated in Map I.

It is well known that Perthshire possesses a number of species
which occur only in the Highland districts and, in contrast to these,
a considerable assemblage restricted to the Lowland region. The
former, which may be conveniently described as the entirely High¬
land element of the flora, numbers 89 species, the latter, or entirely
Lowland element, numbers 103. Thus, of the total flora, the Low¬
land districts share 649 species and are slightly richer than the
Highland districts with 635. And it is interesting to remember
that the area of the former is less than half the area of the latter.
The purely Highland and purely Lowland species, representing
over 25 per cent, of the county flora, are among the rarest plants
in Perthshire, while the remaining 546 species are more widely
distributed, although some of them prove to be either essentially
Lowland or predominantly Highland in their range. But before
dealing in detail with these rarer and more restricted elements, we
may first examine the distribution of the flora as a whole. In
Table II., there is given the number of species recorded from each
of the thirteen districts.

TABLE II.

Total number of species — 738.

District.

No. of Species.

Percentage of
Total Flora.

Area in
square miles.

' Forth, ...

49 1 (542)*

66.5 (73-4)

200 (296)

\ Earn, ...

543

73-6

220

Lowland

! Perth, ...

533

72.2

93

/ Isla,

538

72.9

144

^ Cowrie, - - -

568

77.0

89

'Forth, -

407

55-2

167

Earn, ...

446

60.4

*35

Perth, ...

465

63.0

142

Highland

Isla, ...

Lomond,

534

245

72.4

33-2

222

33

Breadalbane, -

552

bo

445

Rannoch,

443

60.0

310

Wtholl, -

456

1

61.8

293

* Dr. White included in Lowland Forth certain areas now outside Perthshire.
The alteration of the county boundary reduces the extent of Lowland Forth
and excludes a number of plants — f.equently maritime - from this district as
re-adjusted. See note in Flora of Perthshire , p. 1.

J. R. MATTHEWS - DISTRIBUTION OF THE PERTHSHIRE FLORA. I 59

It is unnecessary to discuss the figures of Table II. in detail.
They illustrate for the several districts that the flora of the Low¬
lands is richer, in point of numbers, than that of the Highlands.
It is true that Breadalbane with 552 species does not fall far short
of Gowrie with 568, but we must bear in mind that the former is
five times the area of the latter, and, as is well known, furnishes a
number of peculiarly arctic species not found in any other district
of Perthshire. The data presented in Table II. are expressed
cartographically in Map II.

The concentration of species in Gowrie suggests interesting
problems regarding the arrival and migration of plants in our
county. We have seen that there is a considerable amount of
evidence to show that during the period of maximum glaciation
the flora of Britain was reduced to a comparatively limited and
essentially arctic one, occupying probably only a southern fringe.
As the climate of the glacial period ameliorated, these southernly-
situated yet arctic plants would be among the first to move north¬
wards. Whether at a somewhat later period a migration from the
East was also involved may be a little more difficult to decide,
although it seems probable that such a movement did occur. But,
to quote Dr. White, the plants to arrive first were “ the northern
and alpine species, and to attain the mountain ranges where they
now survive they had to cross the lowland plains and valleys. ”
If, however, our arctic-alpine species did survive the Great Ice Age
on the mountain tops, which lifted themselves above the general
level of the ice-sheet, it will still be true that they are the oldest
members of our local flora, having held their own not only through¬
out the glacial period but during the succeeding changes. This
suggests that the summits of our higher mountains would be
secondary centres of dispersal, a fact which at once leads to com¬
plexity greater than already exists on the theory that the present
Perthshire flora is entirely post-glacial.

But for the moment we will confine our attention to the Lowland
or temperate species, the great majority, if not all of which, it will
be admitted, must have arrived after the retreat of the ice. We
will obtain a fairly close approximation to the number of this
temperate element if we remove those species which are entirely or
essentially Highland in their distribution. This differentiation is
quite arbitrary of course, but by whatever standard we decide
whether a plant is a temperate species or not, the actual number
of doubtful cases in our present series is too small to affect the
general results. Of the 738 species in Perthshire there are 133
which are High’and or chiefly so, leaving 605, or 82 per cent, of
the whole flora which may be regarded as mainly temperate. Of
these, 183 are entirely or essentially Lowland in their range, the

l6o TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

remainder being more widely distributed, penetrating along the
valleys into the Highland region and often reaching a considerable
altitude.

If it be allowed that these 605 species are post-glacial in their
origin in Perthshire we may obtain some idea of their paths of
migration by mapping their present distribution. This might be
attempted for individual species, but here we must be content with
a consideration of the mass. In Table III. is given the incidence
of these 605 species in the several districts of the county.

TABLE III.

Total flora, excluding entirely and chiefly Highland species — 605.

District.

No. of Species.

Percentage.

Forth,

-

-

48;

79.6

Earn,

-

.

528

87.2

Lowland

Perth,

-

5T7

85-4

Isla,

-

-

5H

84.9

Gowrie,

-

-

553

9M

Forth,

-

-

3d5

60.3

Earn,

-

_

394

65.1

Perth.

-

-

424

70.0

Isla,

-

-

454

75-°

Highland

■<

Lomond,

-

-

208

34-4

Breadalbane,

-

-

446

73-7

Rannoch,

-

-

377

62.3

Atholl,

-

-

3S4

63-4

Thus, when we exclude the Highland and essentially Highland
plants, we arrive at the rather interesting fact that Gowrie, with
an area of only 89 square miles, possesses a flora equal to 91.4 per
cent, of the temperate flora of the whole county. Lowland Earn
provides a number of species not found in Gowrie, so that, if we
take the two districts together, nearly 95 per cent, of this temperate
flora can be accounted for. The concentration of the mass of the
flora in the Lowland region in contrast to the Highlands is obvious
from the figures given in the Table, but if a closer comparison be
desired wTe may consider the first four Lowland districts and the
respective Highland area, i.e., Lowland and Highland Forth, Earn,
Perth, and Isla. Here we have two roughly parallel strips of the
county, approximately equal in area, the one Lowland, the other
Highland. The former districts possess, on the average, 510
species, the latter 409. We may therefore picture this temperate
flora reaching Perthshire from an outside source by the ordinary
methods of dispersal, and spreading fairly uniformly and extensively
over the low-lying ground, but extending more slowly into the

J. R. MATTHEWS - DISTRIBUTION OF THE PERTHSHIRE FLORA. l6l

Highland parts of the county. Doubtless the Lowland region offers
greater possibilities, presenting fewer barriers than the Highland
districts. But doubtless, also, the time factor plays a part, since
the concentration of species in the Lowlands must mean that the
plants arrived in that region first, whence they have spread into
the interior and, given time, they may there become more
abundantly represented. Further, the actual migration into Perth¬
shire would seem to have been more by way of the Tay valley than
across the line of the Forth, since Lowland Forth, of all the Lowland
districts, shows a marked paucity in the number of species. Thus,
whatever the general direction of the mass movement through
Scotland as a whole and whatever the past relations of land and
water, the distributional facts now presented suggest that in
Perthshire the flora entered mainly from the east and that migra¬
tion followed, generally speaking, the river systems, for there
occurs a gradual thinning out of the plant population as we pass
into the interior of the county, along the Tay and its main
tributaries. (See Map III.).

It is not suggested, of course, that certain species may not
have reached Perthshire at more points than one, or that one and
the same species may not have arrived in the county at more than
one time. There are, for instance, several plants occurring in the
Forth area which are absent from the Tay. Again, it is not
suggested that the whole problem of distribution, even in a small
area, is solved by a consideration of the mass. The problem is far
too intricate and can only be satisfactorily solved when all the
ecological factors affecting the life of the species are taken into
account and fully understood. During recent years, ecological
studies have gone far towards an explanation of the peculiar
distribution of some of our native species, and although Perthshire
has not figured largely in this work, it is interesting to recall that
in the pioneer ecological surveys of this country, the county was
among the first areas to be examined (R. Smith, 1900), while the
local distribution of the arctic-alpine element has been dealt with by
Professor MacNair (1898). Yet, in spite of the inevitable omission
of details, it is hoped that the broad outlines of distribution given
above may serve a useful purpose. )

rc' - y * ' \K 'V'* U ; • J ;> •' . , » V

,

Degree of Rarity.

— • . ’ • * * • ' ' L ■ V . . .* j' ■/ 1 , * { , J ly* f) t ‘ • \

t

In the foregoing pages reference has been made to the fact that
numerous species show a restricted range. We may now proceed
to examine the data which will furnish more precise information
Regarding the degree- of rarity of Perthshire plants. This can be
obtained by arranging the 738 species according to the number of
districts in which they occur. The facts are set out in Column A,
of Table IV. ’•

I 62 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

TABLE IV.

Occurring in : —

A

No. of
Species.

B

Widely

distri¬

buted.

C

Entirely

Low¬

land.

D

Chiefly

Low¬

land.

E

Entirely

High¬

land.

F

Chiefly

High-

land.

One district

-

-

-

-

75 !

!

40

0

35

O

Two districts

-

-

-

-

41

27

3

1 1

O

Three ,,

-

-

-

-

43

|

18

7

IO

8

Four ,,

-

-

-

-

3i

1

1

1 1

13

4

3

Five ,,

-

-

-

-

27

7

15

3

2

Six ,,

-

-

-

-

36

!9

9

8

Seven ,,

-

-

-

-

4i

|

23

8

10

Eight

-

-

-

-

35

20

9

6

Nine ,,

-

-

-

-

34 1

i 0_
27

7

Ten ,,

-

-

-

-

30 I

3°

Eleven ,,

-

*

-

-

42 |

42

Twelve ,,

-

-

-

-

1 13 I

IJ3

Thirteen ,,

-

-

-

-

1 go 1

! mo

Totals

-

738

! 422

103

80

89

44

If we call those species which are found in one to seven districts
rare or relatively rare, and those occupying eight to thirteen
districts common or relatively so, we obtain 294 species in the
former category and 444 in the latter. Since, however, there are
eight Highland to five Lowland districts it is possible that a species
may be relatively common yet exhibit a distribution entirely or
essentially Highland. I have therefore carried the analysis of the
rarer species, so far as it concerns Highland plants, up to nine
districts, and find 22 species either Highland or mainly so occupy¬
ing eight or nine districts. This leaves 422 common species with
a wide or more general distribution throughout both regions of the
county. These, occurring in eight to thirteen districts, are detailed
in Column B. The remaining 316 rarer species of the flora are
detailed under several headings in Columns C, D, E, and F of
Table IV., and will be dealt with in the sequel.*

Turning to the numbers of the widely-distributed species
(Column B) we find that they form an increasing series from only
20 limited to eight districts to 190 occurring in all the districts.
These facts indicate that the great majority of the members of this
portion of the flora, at least, have been sufficiently long in the

* The terms rare and common as used throughout this paper do not refer
to abundance of individuals, but to the range of distribution of species as
indicated by the number of districts from which they are recorded. Thus, a
species recorded from eight or nine districts is regarded as common though in
actual abundance of individuals it may be deemed rare in the several districts
where it occurs. Or, a species found in a few districts only is rare in the-
present connection though in actual numbers it may be common in these districts.

J. R. MATTHEWS - DISTRIBUTION OF THE PERTHSHIRE FLORA. 163

county to become widely dispersed, only a comparatively small
number, possibly of slightly later arrival, being somewhat, though
not much more, restricted. This view, of course, applies to the
average case. It is perfectly true that in particular cases local
conditions and special modifications may have been such as to
allow of the rapid spread of one species and not of another, so that
a recently arrived species under conditions favourable to it may
have outstripped a species which has actually existed longer within
the county. Considered broadly, however, the above explanation
appears feasible.

But, as we have seen, the flora is not composed entirely of widely-
distributed species, and the point which I here wish to introduce,
in contrast to what has been said about the widely-distributed
element, is illustrated by the figures of Column C, which give the
incidence of 103 species occurring exclusively in the five Lowland
districts. It will be seen that the numbers form a descending
series in contrast to those*of Column B. These rarer species com¬
prise a majority with a very limited distribution and a minority
having a wider distribution, i.e., within the Lowland region. We
may here argue that only the minority have had time to spread
very far, whereas in the widely-distributed series the majority have
spread not only through the Lowlands but into the Highlands as
well.

Observations such as these, but on a much more extensive and
exhaustive scale, led Dr. Willis to enunciate his hypothesis of
“ Age and Area.” The theory, as has been stated already, took
definite shape after detailed study of the distribution of the floras
of Ceylon, New Zealand, and other islands, where, in all cases, it
was found that widely-distributed species (wides) were always
graded upwards from a few of small distribution area to many
having a wide distribution (cf. Column B, Table IV.). On the
other hand, species peculiar to the area in question (endemics)
graded downwards from many having a small range to a few with
a wider range. In other words, the average area occupied by
widely-distributed species was always found to be greater than the
average area occupied by endemics. The hypothesis, first stated in
1915, has passed through several modifications, its most recent
expression in 1919 taking the following form : — “ The area
occupied at any given time, in any given country, by any group of
allied species, at least ten in number, depends chiefly, so long as
conditions remain reasonably constant, upon the ages of the species
of that group in that country, but may be enormously modified by
the presence of barriers such as seas, rivers, mountains, changes
of climate from one region to the next or other ecological
boundaries, and the like, also by the action of man and by other
causes.” The theory, it will be observed, is limited by numerous
reservations, yet its main contention that, on the average, the

164 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

longer a species exists in any given reasonably uniform area the
wider will be its range in that area, is surely a very possible one.
So numerous are the reservations, however, that it would not be
surprising if the theory were found to be inapplicable to the flora
of a country like Britain or any part of it. Yet it is interesting
to find that the numbers relating to the widely-distributed portion
of the Perthshire flora agree so remarkably well with the require¬
ments of the theory. And again, taking the entirely Lowland
species, we may for our present purposes compare these with the
“ endemics ” of Willis’s investigations, since, within the limits
of Perthshire, a species found only in the Lowland region is
endemic to that area. These rarer species, as already pointed out,
fall into a descending series, thus agreeing with the general theory,
not because they are really endemic, however, but because they
are, it would seem, at an early stage of invasion. They are, on the
average, the youngest species of the county.*

We may carry the analysis of the rarity of the flora a little
further. The entirely Lowland element (103 species) we have
already mentioned. Entirely Highland species (89) are detailed in
Column E of Table IV. But in addition to these there is a con¬
siderable number of comparatively rare species (124) which occur
in both regions. They overlap, but they are either more widely
distributed in the Lowlands (80 species) or they occupy a wider
range in the Highlands (44 species). The former, described as
chiefly Lowland species, are dealt with in Column D, the latter,
chiefly Highland plants, are detailed in Column F. A few species,
equally Lowland and Highland, in respect of the number of districts
they occupy, are included in the chiefly Lowland element. Further
details regarding the distribution of these several portions of the
flora may best be treated separately. (See Appendix for lists of
rarer species).

Entirely Lowland Species.

The regional distribution of species, 103 in number, which do
not extend beyond the Lowland districts is shown by the following
table : —

TABLE V.

Lowland

Forth,

.

_

_

No. of Species.

27

Earn,

-

-

-

-

46

Perth,

-

-

-

-

57

Isla,

-

-

-

-

37

Gowrie, -

-

-

-

-

80

* I have dealt with the Distribution of Perthshire Plants in relation to “ Age
and Area” in a paper published in Annals of Botany, July, 1922.

J. R. MATTHEWS - DISTRIBUTION OF THE PERTHSHIRE FLORA. 1 65

These figures bring out the interesting fact that as many as 80
of the 103 Lowland plants occur in Gowrie, leaving only 23
variously scattered in the other four districts. The increase in the
number of species with increasing area may be illustrated in the
present series as follows : —

Gowrie, --------- 80

Gowrie 4- Earn, ------- 92

Cowrie 4- Earn -j- Isla, ----- gg

Gowrie -j- Earn 4- Isla 4- Perth, - - - ior

Gowrie 4- Earn 4- Isla .l Perth -{_ Forth, - 103

There can be little doubt that the hypothesis of “ Age and
Area ” is applicable to this restricted Lowland flora of Perthshire.
Reference has already been made to the fact that these 103 species
form a very regular descending series from 40 occurring in one
district to 7 occupying all five districts. Their degree of rarity is
high, and it is suggested that this restricted Lowland flora is, on
the whole, of comparatively recent introduction, having yet had
insufficient time to spread very far, although there is no reason to
suppose that some, certainly not all, of the constituent species
may not in the future extend their range within the county. It is
obvious that certain types will be restricted by certain definite
ecological boundaries. For example, we should not expect maritime
forms in Perthshire beyond the limits of the Gowrie district, but,
excluding these, there seems nothing to prevent certain of the other
species which are at present Lowland ultimately finding their way
farther into the interior.

The concentration of species in Gowrie, already commented
upon when speaking of the flora as a whole, is a prominent feature
in the distribution of the entirely Lowland element. (See Map IV.)
Even the removal of the maritime species from the list still leaves
Gowrie with a largely preponderant number of species. Nearly 80
per cent, of the entirely Lowland element occurs in this district
and 27 of the 40 (67.5 per cent.) restricted to a single district belong
to Gowrie. Unless we assume a wholesale destruction of species
in other districts, the apparent explanation of this concentration in
Gowrie is that the species have arrived in that district first. If
this be true for the entirely Lowland element of the Perthshire flora
may it not also apply to the temperate flora as a whole? Topo¬
graphical features, it should be remembered, are in favour rather
than against such a view.

Entirely Highland Species.

These number 89 and their incidence in the several Highland
districts is shown in Table VI., and cartographically in Map V.

1 66 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

TABLE VI.

Highland

No. of Species.

Area above 3000
feet in sq. ml.

Peaks above

3000 feet.

Forth,

-

-

23

I

7

Earn,

-

-

33

1

8

3

Perth,

-

-

13

0

1

Isla,

-

-

45

1

2

5

Lomond,

-

32

1

3

7

Breadalbane.

-

_

70

9

34

Rannoch,

-

-

39

4

16

Atholl,

-

-

45

2

16

We are here concerned with an element of our flora which has
provided a favourite subject for discussion. Dr. White’s opinion
is already known to us, and I think Professor MacNair (1898)
holds a similar view regarding- the origin of our arctic species,
which constitute the majority of these entirely Highland plants.
He goes further, however, to show that altitude alone is not the
determining factor in the distribution and survival of the alpine
flora of Perthshire by pointing out that the presence of a band of
sericite schist stretching from Ben Lui through Breadalbane to
Canlochan is the chief factor influencing the distribution of our
local alpines. So, while Breadalbane is the richest district it is
not necessarily because it has the largest area of high ground or
the greatest number of high peaks, but because it embraces that
band of schistose rocks which produce the fine, friable, micaceous
soil in which many of our rarer arctic species have been able “ to
maintain an existence in the great struggle which has exterminated
them from the plains, the hills, and the majority of even our highest
summits.” It is a theory claiming edaphic conditions as the
dominant factor and suggesting a process of selection, competition
leading ultimately to the restriction of the alpine flora to those
areas where the combination of soil factors is best suited to the
growth of the plants concerned. But if we knew more of the
biology of arctic plants we should probably find that epedaphic
factors play their part as well.

In the case of the arctic-alpine element of the Perthshire flora
the applicability of the “ Age and Area ” law does not seem
possible. It is ruled out, I think, by its own admitted limitations.
The arctic species are rare, not like the purely Lowland species
because they are still young in the county, but because they are
either slowly disappearing or they have failed in general to widen
their range. I cannot admit all these arctic-alpines as recent
arrivals, although perhaps a few of them might be regarded as
such. Whether they survived the period of maximum glaciation
on nunataks, or whether they represent the van of an arctic flora

J. R. MATTHEWS - DISTRIBUTION OF THE PERTHSHIRE FLORA. 167

advancing northwards as the Ice Sheet retreated, there is good
reason to regard most of them as relics of a former much more
widely distributed palsearctic flora, most of which has retired still
further north, finding its headquarters at the present day in
Scandinavia. The possibility of survival on nunataks since pre¬
glacial times has been favourably considered by some, but it will
be difficult to prove any direct connection between the present
arctic flora of our high summits and the pre-glacial flora of these
heights. There may have been since glacial times a long drawn-out
movement to and fro, up and down our hills, but whatever the
past history of our arctic species, we have at present only the
remnants of an arctic flora, which, as proved by the fossil record,
was unquestionably at one time more widely distributed in Britain
than it is to-day. Competition has been perhaps the most potent
factor in the squeezing out of this earlier flora under pressure of
an incoming Lowland flora which has now established itself fairly
generally throughout the country.

Perthshire has shared the process, and although it is not easy
to reconstruct the picture in detail, a faint outline may possibly
appear from an examination of the distribution of those plants
which at present overlap a little into one region or the other —
Lowland and Highland — but which belong essentially to one or the
other.

The Rarer Overlapping Species.

Turning again to Table IV., we find there are 80 somewhat
rare species distributed chiefly in the Lowland districts. They show
an increasing series of numbers from 3 occupying two districts to
23 occurring in seven districts. They may be compared with the
series of widely-distributed plants though in fact they are, on the
average, intermediate in commonness between the entirely Lowland
and widely-distributed elements. They are common in the Low¬
lands but rare in the Highlands. But in their invasion of the
county they are ahead of those species still restricted to the Low¬
lands. One may argue, therefore, other things being equal , that
they have existed in the county longer than the purely Lowland
element. (See Map VL).

On the other hand, there are 44 species (Column F, Table IV.)
which have a distribution predominantly Highland. But, as in the
case of the entirely Highland plants, the figures for these 44 species
do not show any regular gradation up or down, and if they re¬
immigrated after the glacial period, it is suggested that they either
at once established themselves in greater force in the Highland
region or, if they gradually traversed the Lowland region, then
they have there undergone disintegration of area.

The details of the regional distribution of these overlapping
floras are set out in Table VII.

o

1 68 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

TABLE VII.

Lowland

Highland

Chiefly Lowland
Species (80).

Chiefly Highland
Species (44)

District.

No.

Percentage.

No.

Percentage.

r k'orth,

49

61.2

9

20.4

| Earn,

66

82.5

x5

34-1

i Perth, ...

59

73-7

16

36.3

Isla, - - -

57

71.2

24

5T5

Hx.owrie. -

59

73-7

15

34-i

Torth, ...

13

16.2

19

43-i

Earn, ...

9

1 1.2

19

43.1

Perth, ...

22

27-5

28

63.6

Isla,

38

47-5

35

79-5

| Lomond,

1

1.2

5

11. 4

Breadalbane, -

35

43-7

36

81.8

Rannoch,

7

8.7

27

61.4

Atholl, -

14

17-5

27

61.4

The data for the chiefly Lowland plants give evidence of fairly
uniform distribution in the Lowland districts, althoug'h the Tay
areas are each richer than Lowland Forth. If we trace these 80
species into the Higflilands wTe find, as we might expect, a con¬
siderable number reaching- Hig-hland Isla, Perth, and Breadalbane,
yet it is rather remarkable that while Lowland Earn possesses
66, only 9 occur in Hig-hland Earn.

Of the 44 species which exhibit a predominantly Hig-hland
range, the greatest concentration occurs in Breadalbane, as is
the case with the entirely Highland species. But an interesting
feature about these 44 overlapping species is their comparative
commonness in the Lowland districts. They are commoner in the
Lowlands than the chiefly Lowland species are in the Highlands.
The latter, I believe, may be regarded as being in an early phase
of invasion of the Highlands. Many of them may never become
much more prevalent there than they are now, just as many of
the purely Lowland species may never reach the Highland valleys,
for every species must have its own peculiar barriers, its own
limitations to the area it may occupy. But have those plants,
which are now mainly Highland, always been so? Is their centre
of distribution in the Highlands, and are they descending into the
Lowlands? Or are they suffering from competition and undergoing
disintegration of area in the Lowland region? If, by any natural
cause, Polygonatum verticillatam, Festuca sylvatica , Potamogeton
praelongus , Subularia aquatica , and Cochlearia alpina , all of which
occur in several of the Highland districts, should disappear from
Lowland Isla; Drosera anglica and Salix lapponum from Lowland

J. R. MATTHEWS - DISTRIBUTION OF THE PERTHSHIRE FLORA. 1 69

Forth; and Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi from Lowland Earn, we shall
have to add eight species to our list of entirely Highland plants.

We shall not seek, at present, to enter upon purely speculative
flights, but it would appear that in the rarer overlapping elements
of the Perthshire flora we are presented with what may amount to
a test question regarding the problems we have had before us.

In the preceding pages, and in the accompanying maps, a
number of facts relating to the distribution of plants within Perth¬
shire, well known in a general way to local students of the flora,
have been gathered together and set down in tabular and carto¬
graphic form. This is perhaps the chief value of the present
communication, and I leave it to those who are interested to
interpret the facts according to their own proclivities. No one is
more aware than the writer how difficult and often dangerous it
is to generalise in biological work from mere statistics, and if
definite conclusions have not been forthcoming, it is hoped that
the suggestions brought forward, however theoretical they may be,
may draw attention to a line of thought which adds an increasing
fascination to the study of a local flora.

In conclusion, I desire to express my indebtedness to Mr. R. M.
Adam for help in the preparation of the maps illustrating this
paper.

REFERENCES.

Barclay, W. 1910.

1912.

Bennie, J. 1894.

- 1896.

Chandler, M. E. J. 1921.

Darwin, C. 1859.

Geikie, J. 1881.

Hooker, J. D. 1862.

Lewis, F. J. 1911.
Macnair, P. 1898.

Marr, J. E. and
Gardner, E. W. 1916.
Marr, J. E. 1920.

Praeger, R. L. 1910.

Our Alpine Flora. Proc. Perth Soc. Nat. Sci., V.,
Pt. 2.

Additions to the List of Perthshire Plants. Ibid.,
V., Pt. 4.

Arctic Plants in the old lake deposits of Scotland.

Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist.

Arctic Plant Beds in Scotland. Ibid.

The Arctic Flora of the Cam Valley. Quart. Journ.

Geol. Soc., LXXV1I., Pt. 1. .

Origin of Species. Ch. XI.

Prehistoric Europe.

Outlines of Distribution of Arctic Plants. Trans.
Linn. Soc., XXIII.

The Plant Remains in the Scottish Peat Mosses.
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.

The Geological Factors in the Distribution of the
Alpine Plants of Perthshire. Trans. Perth Soc.
Nat. Sci., II., Pt. 6.

An Arctic Flora in the Pleistocene Beds of Barnwell,
Cambridge. Geol. Mag., N. S., III.

Man and the Ice Age. Proc. Prehist. Soc. East
Anglia, III., Pt. 2.

The Wild Flowers of the West of Ireland and their
History. Journ. Roy. Hort. Soc.

170 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

Reid, C. and
Ridley, H. N. 1888.
Reid, C. 1899.
- 1908.

- 1911.

I9I3-

1916.

Seward, A

. C.

1911

Small,

J-

1918.

Stapf,

O.

1916.

Wallace, A. R.

White,

F.

B. 1

00

HH

1

898.

Wille,

N.

1915*

Willis,

J.

C. 1

9I5-

1919.

1922.

Fossil Arctic Plants from the lacustrine deposits at
Hoxne. Geol. Mag., V.

The Origin of the British Flora.

On the Pre-Glacial Flora of Britain. Journ. Linn.
Soc., Bot., XXXVIII.

On the Relation of the present Plant Population of
the British Isles to the Glacial Period. British
Association Report.

Submerged Forests. Cam. Univ. Press.

The Plants of the late glacial deposits of the Lea
Valley. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., LXXI., Pt. 2.

Links with the Past in the Plant World. Cam. Univ.
Press.

The Age and Area Law. Science Progress, No. 47.

A Cartographic Study of the Southern Element in
the British Flora. Proc. Linn. Soc., London.

Island Life.

The Origin of the Perthshire Flora. Proc. Perth
Soc. Nat. Sci., I., Pt. 5.

Flora of Perthshire.

The Flora of Norway and its Immigration. Ann.
Missouri Bot. Gdn., II.

The Endemic Flora of Ceylon with reference to
Geographical Distribution and Evolution in
general. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., London, CCVI.

The Floras of the Outlying Islands of New Zealand
and their distribution. Ann. Bot., XXXIII., and
numerous other papers by the same author in the
Annals of Botany.

Age and Area. Cam. Univ. Press.

APPENDIX.

Since it is obviously desirable to have some idea of the plants whose dis¬
tribution has-been discussed in this paper, the following lists of the rarer plants
of the county have been drawn up.

It may be contended that a number of the species mentioned are not, strictly
speaking, members of the category suggested by the name of the list in which
they appear. My aim has been, however, to present the facts of distribution as
they concern our native plants in the county of Perth. The inclusion of recent
records which have accrued since Mr. Barclay’s paper (1912) appeared, would
involve a few changes in the distributional data (e.g. Scheuchzeria palustris),
but the general results would remain unaltered. The number of districts from
which the species are recorded is placed after the name of each. The names
are those of Dr. White’s Flora.

I. Entirely Lowland Species (103).

Ranunculus Drouetii 1.
R. heterophyllus 2.

R. confusus 1.

Cvnoglossum officinale 1.
C. germanicum 2.
Veronica polita 3.

MAP I.

Plate 21.

MAP II

Plate 22,

V

MAP 111.

Plate 23.

MAP IV.

Plate 24.

MAP V.

Plate 25.

MAP VI.

Plate 26.

>

MAP VII

Plate 27

J. R. MATTHEWS - DISTRIBUTION OF THE PERTHSHIRE FLORA. 171

R. penicillatus 3.

R. circinatus 3.

R. sceleratus 5.

R. sardous 4.

R. arvensis 2.

Fumaria confusa 2.
Nasturtium palustre 5.
Lepidium campestre 4.
Thlaspi arvense 3.

Reseda lutea 2.

Cerastium tetrandrum 2.
Stellaria palustris 2.
Honkeneja peploides 1.
Sagina apetala 3.

S. maritima 1.

Buda marina 1.

Geranium columbinum 4.
Trifolium striatum 3.

Vicia lathyroides 2.

Rubus caesius 1.

Potentilla argentea 3.
Myriophyllum spicatum 4.
Callitriche vernalis 2.
Epilobium hirsutum 5.
Cicuta virosa 2.

Sium angustifolium 1.
Oenanthe fistulosa 1.

Oe. crocata 4.

Anthriscus vulgaris 1.
Sambucus Ebulus 3.
Valerianella olitoria 3.

V. dentata 1.

Dipsacus sylvestris 2.
Eupatorium cannabinum 4.
Aster Tripolium 1.

Senecio viscosus 4.

Bidens cernua 2.

Arctium intermedium 1.
Centaurea Scabiosa 2.
Carduus nutans 1.

C. crispus 5.

Lactuca virosa 2.
Leontodon hirtus 1.
Campanula glomerata 3.
Andromeda polifolia 1.
Moneses grandiflora 1.
Ervthraea Centaurium 5.
Convolvulus arvensis 5.
Lithospermum arvense 4.

V. anagallis 5.

Mentha longifolia 2.

M. viridis 3.

M. piperita 3.

M. sativa 4.

M. rubra 2.

Lycopus europaeus 2.
Calamintha Acinos 4.
Galeopsis angustifolia 1.
Eamium intermedium 1.
[Jtricularia intermedia 1.
Lvsimachia thyrsiflora 3.
Glaux maritima 1.

Plantago coronopus 1.
Atriplex Babingtonii 1.
Polygonum Bistorta 2.

P. minus 3.

P. maculatum 1.

Rumex conglomeratus 2.

R. Hydrolapathum 3.
Euphorbia exigua 2.
Ceratophyllum demersum T.
Salix triandra 3.

Goodyera repens 4.
Cephalanthera ensifolia 2.
Allium vineale 1.

Juncus Gerardi 1.

Alisma ranunculoides 2.
Triglochin maritimum 1.
Scheuchzeria palustris 1.
Potamogeton lucens 3.

P. decipiens 1.

P. filiformis 1.

Zannichellia palustris 1.
Eleocharis uniglumis 1.
Scirpus maritimus 1.

S. Tabernaemontani 2.
Carex paniculata 2.

C. vulpina 1.

C. acuta 1.

C. pendula 2.

Catabrosa aquatica 1.

Poa compressa 3.

P. palustris 2.

Glyceria plicata 1.

G, aquatica 2.

G. maritima 1.

G. distans 1.

172 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

II. Chiefly Lowland Species (8o).

Ranunculus trichophyllus 3.
R. floribundus 5.

R. peltatus 7.

R. Lingua 4.

Aquilegia vulgaris 4.
Papaver Argemone 7.

P. Rhoeas 5.

Fumaria pallidiflora 6.

F. densiflora 5.

Nasturtium sylvestre 6.
Arabis perfoliata 4.
Sisymbrium Alliaria 7.
Teesdalia nudicaulis 4.
Reseda Luteola 6.

Viola hirta 3.

Dianthus deltoides 6.

Lychnis viscaria 5.

Githago segetum 7.
Cerastium arvense 7.

Sagina ciliata 4.

Elatine hexandra 3.
Hypericum Androsaemum 2.
H. quadrangulum 7.
Trifolium arvense 7.
Astragalus glycophyllos 7.

A. hypoglottis 7.

Ornithopus perpusillus 6 .
Potentilla reptans 5.
Saxifraga tridactylites 3.
Sedum villosum 7.

S. anglicum 6.

S. acre 6.

Callitriche autumnalis 6.
Aethusa Cvnapium 4.

Scandix Pecten-Veneris 4.
Conium maculatum 5.
Linnaea borealis 7.

Filago germanxa 7.

Anthemis Cotula 3.

Bidens tripartita 6.

Arctium minus 7.
Hieracium umbellatum 7.
Tragopogon pratensis 5.
Echium vulgare 7.
Lithospermum officinale 2.
Lathraea squammaria 6.
Mentha hirsuta 5.
Origanum vulgare 7.
Stachys arvensis 6.

S. Betonica 4.

Lamium hybridum 6.
Centunculus minimus 4.
Rumex acutus 5.

R. conspersus 2.

R. sanguineus 6.

Salix pentandra 6.

S. alba 7.

S. purpurea 7.

Corallorhiza innata 5.
Epipactis latifolia 5.

Gagea lutea 4.

Juncus glaucus 6.

Butomus umbellatus 3.
Potamogeton rufescens 7.
P. nitens 4.

P. angustifolius 4.

P. perfoliatus 7.

P. crispus 6.

P. obtusifolius 5.

Naias flexilis 3.
Rhvnchospora alba 4.
Eleocharis acicularis 5.
Scirpus lacustris 5.

Carex disticha 6.

C. teretiuscula 7.

C. paludosa 5.

Milium effusum 6.

Trisetum flavescens 6.

Poa trivalis 7.

Festuca gigantea 7.

III. Entirety Highland Species (89).

Thalictium alpinum 8.
Arabis petraea 1.

Draba rupestris 1.

D. incana 8.

Thlaspi alpestre 2.

G. nivalis 1.
Myosotis alpestris 1.
Veronica alpina 4.
V. fruticans 4.
Bartsia alpina 1.

J. R. MATTHEWS - DISTRIBUTION OF THE PERTHSHIRE FLORA. I 73

Viola Reichenbachiana i.
Silene acaulis 7.

Cerastium alpinum 6.

C. trigynum 2.

Stellaria umbrosa 2.

Cherleria sedoides 1.

Alsine verna 2.

A. sulcata 2.

Sagina Linnaei 6.

S. nivalis 1.

Astragalus alpinus 1.
Oxytropus uralensis 3.

O. campestris 1.

Vicia Orobus 2.

Lathyrus niger 1.

Rubus chamaemorus 8.

Dryas octopetala 3.

Potentilla Sibbaldi 7.

P. rubens 6.

Rosa hibern'ca 2.

Pyrus Aria 1.

Saxifraga rivularis 1.

S. cernua 1.

S. stellaris 8.

S. nivalis 6.

S. oppositifolia 8.

Sedum roseum 7.

Epilobium anagallidifolium 7.
Cornus suecica 5.

Galium svlvestre 3.

Erigeron alpinum 1.
Gnaphalium norvegicum 1.

G. supinum 7.

Saussurea alpina 7.

Serratula tinctoria 1.
Vaccinium uliginosum 7.
Phyllodoce caerulea 1.
Loiseleuria procumbens 5.
Pyrola rotundifolia 1.

Gentiana Amarella 1.

IV. Chiefly

Caltha radicans 3.

Nymphaea pumila 7.
Cochlearia alpina 9.

Subularia aquatica 8.

Potentilla procumbens 8.
Agrimonia odorata 6.

Poterium Sanguisorba 3.

Pinguicula lusitanica 1.
Utricularia neglecta 1.

Betula nana 4.

Salix Arbuscula 3.

S. lanata 1.

S. Myrsinites 3.

S. herbacea 8.

S. reticulata 2.

Taxus baccata 1.

Malaxis paludosa 4.

Epipactis atrorubens 1.
Tofieldia palustris 8.

Juncus alpinus 3.

J. castaneus 3.

J. triglumis 8.

J. biglumis 2.

J. trifidus 6.

Luzula spicata 7.

Sparganium affine 6.
Scboenus ferrugineus 1.

S. nigricans 1.

Kobresia caricina 3.

Carex rupestris 1.

C. pauciflora 6.

C. Boenninghausiana 1.

C. alpina 1.

C. rigidia 8.

C. atrata 3.

C. ustulata 1.

C. rariflora 1.

C. vaginata 5.

C. capillaris 6.

C. pulla 3.

Alopecurus alpinus 1.

Phleum alpinum 1.
Deschampsia alpina 3.
Sesleria caerulea 1.

Poa alpina 6.

P. glauca 3.

'.and Species (44).

U. vulgaris 6.

Lysimachia vulgaiis 4.
Anagallis tenella 3.

Salix Lapponum 6.

Pinus sylvestris 7.

Epipactis palustris 3.
Polygcnatum verticillatum 4.

174 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

Drosera anglica 5.

Hippuris vulgaris 6.
Callitriche hamulata 8.
Epilobium alsinefolium 8.
Galium Mollugo 6.
Hieracium murorum 7.

H. prenanthoides 9.

H. boreale 5.

Lobelia Dortmanna 9.
Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi 8.
Pyrola media 8.

P. secunda 9.

Melampyrum sylvaticum 7.
Mentha arvensis 7.
Utricularia minor 6.

Convallaria majalis 7.
Potamogeton polygonifolius 9.
P. praelongus 7.

Eleocharis multicaulis 4.
Eriophorum latifolium 9.
Carex aquatilis 7.

C. irrigua 6.

C. Oederi 7.

C. laevigata 3.

Calamagrostis Epigeios 3.
Avena pubescens 7.

Festuca sylvatica 6.

F. rubra 3.

F. duriuscula 9.

F. sciuroides 3.

Charles MfIntosh.

i8jg — 1922.

By James Menzies.

Charles M‘Intosh was born at Inver on the 27th of March,
1839, and died at the home of his brother at Dunkeld on the 5th of
January, 1922.

His father was originally engaged in the handloom weaving
industry, and when that failed owing to the introduction of the
power loom he took up the teaching of music. His son, Charles
M‘Intosh, very early in life manifested that spirit of inquiry and
thirst for knowledge which proved the leading characteristics of
his life. He was described by his mother as not like the other
children, but was always observing and trying to find out about
things.

From the age of six until he was fourteen he received his educa¬
tion at the Free Church School at Birnam, the subsequent two
years being spent at the Royal Grammar School at Dunkeld. At
the age of sixteen he left school and went to work at the Sawmill
at Inver, and two years later had the misfortune to suffer a mutila¬
tion of his hand.

Incapacitated for further manual employment, a year later he
entered the Postal Service and became rural postman in his own
locality, and in this employment he continued for thirty years,
retiring five years earlier than the age limit owing to repeated
attacks of pleurisy.

JAMES MENZIES ON CHARLES M‘lNTOSH.

17S

M‘Intosh was unmarried and spent his whole life in the locality
in which he was born, and even in the same house.

His bias towards botanical pursuits seems to have been due
to the circumstance that his mother was interested in ferns, and
when M‘Intosh was about twenty years of age the family acquired
a copy of Moor’s “ British Ferns,” and he entered into their
collection and study with enthusiasm. Thereafter he continued his
collecting in a miscellaneous way. He must have been sorely
hampered by the want of books on the subject, as not for a good
manv years later was he in possession of Hooker’s “ Student’s
Flora.”

In 1872 M‘Intosh attracted the attention of Dr. Buchanan
White, then resident in Birnam, and there can be no doubt Dr.
White’s sympathetic help and counsel had a strong influence in
guiding the botanical pursuits of M‘Intosh. When in the year
following Dr. White removed to Rannoch, and finally to Perth,
a considerable correspondence passed between them, and Dr.
Whitens letters I have been privileged to use. Much of this
correspendence relates to the flora of the Dunkeld district, in the
investigation of which Dr. White had enlisted the help of M‘Intosh.
That he gave his services freely in this capacity Dr. White’s many
letters of acknowledgment fully bear out, and the results of his
labours in this respect were subsequently of great service in the
compilation of the “ Flora of Perthshire.”

The correspondence mentioned above dates from the year 1873,
when we learn that Dr. White wrote to Mr. M‘Intosh asking his
permission to nominate him as an Associate Member of the Perth¬
shire Society of Natural Science, to which he gave his consent.
Shortly afterwards Dr. White wrote advising him as to procuring
a Hooker's “ Students’ Flora,” and, learning that he had
borrowed a book on Mosses from the library of the Society, he
offered him some advice on the collection and study of these plants.
M‘Intosh made excellent use of this book and others which he
subsequently acquired, as he attained to a sound knowledge of the
Mosses of his locality, and besides contributing to the Society’s
collections he formed a fine private collection, which he gifted to
the School of Forestry at Dunkeld about a year before his death.

In 1880 Dr. White wrote thanking him for the offer to dry a
collection of the plants of his district for the herbarium of the
Society, and this promise he amply fulfilled. In 1885 we learn that
M‘Intosh consulted Dr. White as to the selection and purchase of
a microscope, and evidently the instrument was bought shortly
afterwards, as the same season Dr. White wrote to him suggesting
that with the aid of his microscope he might now take up the study
of the Fresh Water Algae. Whether MTntosh took up the study
of the Algae at this time there is no evidence to show, but he
eventually did, making a collection of those found in his locality

176 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

and mounting many sections as microscope slides. Unfortunately
his mounting media gave way, and when he showed them to the
writer he was about to destroy them. “ Oh, well,” he said on
that occasion, “ it cannot be helped, and the knowledge I derived
from working at the Algae was the main thing after all.” This
correspondence with Dr. White closed in 1893 with a letter from
the Doctor anent Lampreys and which M‘Intosh had sent him.

When he began what was his favourite study, the Fungi, it is
now impossible to say. When he met Dr. White in 1872 he was
already collecting, and the Doctor spent a great deal of time with
him examining the Fungi which M‘Intosh collected, Dr. White
frequently expressing his surprise and pleasure at the many fine
species he was able to find in his locality, and when some years
later Dr. White published his “ Preliminary List of Perthshire
Fungi,” M‘Intosh’s work was incorporated in that list. In 1873
M‘Intosh made enquiries of Dr. White if there were any book on
Fungi in the Society’s library which he could borrow, when the
Doctor assured him there was none, but suggested that if he,
M‘Intosh, would collect those fungi growing on wood leaves, etc.,
he should get them named for him. Their subsequent correspond¬
ence, however, gives no hint that he availed himself of this offer —
he was to do this work for himself in after years.

In 1875 M‘Intosh was an exhibitor at the great Fungus Show
at Perth, and his exhibit excited a good deal of interest, as it
contained specimens of the beautiful Pholiota Aureus Var. Yahlii
Schum, which had not until then been found in Britain.

In 1887 he acquired a copy of Berkeley’s “ Outlines of British
Fungology,” and the same year he was presented by an admirer
with a copy of Stephenson’s “ Fungus Flora,” then newly
published, and, as he said to the writer afterwards, the latter was
a mine of wealth to him. With these books, and now in possession
of a microscope, he was able to study the Basidiomycetes in a
systematic way, and all his notes on the subject which I have been
able to examine date from this time. When, some ten years later, in
1899, the writer first met Mr. M‘Intosh, he had a fairly comprehensive
knowledge of the Basidiomycetes, and this remained his favourite
group. Working for so many years in the same locality, and that
a good one for these Fungi, he discovered many fine species and
was able to add several new to the “ British Fungus Flora.” He
had also many curious incidents to relate as to the occurrence of
certain species, their disappearance in some instances for many
years and their reappearance on the original spot. To M‘Intosh
at least the perennial duration of the Mycelium was a fact which
admitted of no doubt.

About 1906 M‘Intosh acquired a copy of Massie’s “ Fungus
Flora,” which enabled him to widen the scope of his studies, and
shortly afterwards, his attention having been called to a copy of

JAMES MENZIES ON CHARLES M‘lNTOSH.

177

Cook’s “ Handbook on British Fungi ” in the library of the
Society, he borrowed the book and added the Pyrenomycetes and
Sphaeropsidea to his quest. In the freely wooded country around
Dunkeld he was successful in finding- many interesting members of
these groups, two new to science and three new to Britain.
Amongst the latter was one of special interest to those in charge
of plantations, Cucurbitaria pithyophila, a parasite on the Scots
fir. A collection of these Fungi in the Herbarium of the Society
is almost exclusively his own work.

In 1918, learning that the writer was bent on specializing on
the Discomycetes with a view to ascertaining what species were
represented in the county, he at once offered his help by working
up his own locality, and this work he steadily pursued till within
two or three years of his death, and in the course of which he was
again able to add five species and one variety new to Britain and
two new to science. Mr. M‘Intosh wras a careful and highly
competent worker. His specimens sent to me were invariably
accompanied by a microscopical diagnosis of the plant showing
its distinctive characteristics, and these were models of patient and
accurate observation. Much of this work was done when he was
considerably over the three score years and ten. Besides all this
he found time to collect and study the Uredineae of his own locality,
and he handed over his collection of these to the Herbarium of
the Society some two years before his death.

MTntosh had also a considerable knowledge of the Lichen Flora
of the Dunkeld district.

Apart from purely botanical pursuits he was widely interested
in Nature, as his “ Nature Notes ” communicated to the Trans¬
actions of the Society proved. In Ornithology he was keenly
interested, and we find his knowledge and services acknowledged
by Harvie Brown, author of the “ Fauna of the Tay Basin.” In
a footnote in that work the author says : — “ Mr. MHntosh is a
careful observer, and during a considerable portion of his life has
traversed Strathbraan as a regular letter carrier (now retired) ; his
identifications may be relied on as correct. He has sent me notes
relating to a wide area around Dunkeld. These, when necessary,
I will make mention of in the body of the catalogue resume.”

M‘Intosh’s interest in Meteorology led him to keep an accurate
record of the rainfall at Inver for many years, with notes on all
the abnormalities of the season and observations of the flood and
drought levels of the Tay.

His interest was not confined to the present ; the past had also
a strong attraction for him, and all the prehistoric remains in his
locality were well known to him. During his life time he collected
relics of less remote times, and these although valued by him were
freely parted with in the public interest.

178 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

In music he found much pleasure, both vocal and instrumental.
For many years he conducted the psalmody of the Parish Church
at Little Dunkeld with marked ability, and in the latter years of
his life, when no longer so able to range the hills and woods in
botanical pursuits, he spent much time in the composition of music.

As a recreation from more exacting pursuits, M'Intosh
possessed a turning lathe with which he gratified his artistic taste
in wood turning, and despite his infirmity produced highly credit¬
able work.

From the facts related above it will be learned that M‘Intosh
was a man of varied interests, and even beyond these special
interests he was well informed on many subjects. To those who
shared his interest in Nature he was an ideal companion to have
for a day in the woods or on the hills of his native place. His keen
delight in the study of Nature, as well as the vast amount of
knowledge he had acquired on the subject, never failed to impress
his visitors. On these occasions his only desire was to bring before
his friends all the natural treasures of the locality with which he
was so well acquainted. Living in a beautiful part of the country,
he invariably guided his visitors so that he was able to bring them
out on some commanding eminence, and while he pointed out the
geological features of the locality he never forgot to challenge their
admiration of the beauty of the landscape of which he was justly
proud, and to which long years of familiarity had not dulled his
sensibilities. This love for the beautiful was highly characteristic
of Mr. M‘Intosh. To him the purpling hills, with their ever vary¬
ing panorama of cloud, mist, and sunshine, the beauty of the
flowers and trees, the songs of birds, the harmonies of music,
brought intense pleasure, for despite his passion for scientific
knowledge he was imbued with the true artistic temperament in
no common degree.

A man of simple and unaffected manners, obliging and courteous
at all times, he won the respect and esteem of all with whom he
came in contact. Often appealed to for the material for nature
study by those less fortunately placed, to such appeals he never
failed to respond, even although it sometimes cost him a great deal
of trouble to secure. From the stores of his own knowledge he
was ever ready to help and encourage anyone showing an interest
in those subjects which he had specially made his own, and this was
very marked in his attitude towards children, for whom he
manifested a remarkable fondness, and he was never happier than
when trying to imbue them with that love of nature in which he
himself had found so much pleasure and happiness. If it be true,
as some hold, that the secret of the enjoyment of life is to be found
in the multiplication of its interests, then that secret was discovered
by Charles M‘Intosh, ex-postman, naturalist, musician, and
gentleman.

HENRY COATES - INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF PERTHSHIRE.

179

Invertebrate Fauna of Perthshire :
The Land and Freshwater Moliusca.

Bv Henry Coates, F.S.A.Scot.

I. — Introduction.

I have given this paper, as a first title, the heading “ Inver¬
tebrate Fauna of Perthshire,”* in the hope that workers in other
branches of natural history may be induced to continue the series.
We already have a fairly complete “ Flora of Perthshire,” publish¬
ed in 1898, from the pen of the late Dr. Buchanan White, compris¬
ing the flowering plants of the county, a “ Vertebrate Fauna of the
Tay Basin amid Strathmore,” published in 1906, by the late Mrv
J. A. Harvie-Brown, comprising the mammals, birds, reptiles and
amphibians, and a ‘‘Fauna Peirthensis ; Part 1. — Lepidopteria, ”
published in 1871, also by Dr. Buchanan White, containing an
account of the moths and butterflies of the district. We have also
the “ Geology and Scenery of the Grampians and the Valley of
Strathmore,” published in 1908, by Mr. Peter Macnair, dealing
with the geology of both the Highland and Lowland portions of the
county. These are all excellent works of reference in their several
subjects, but they do not by any means cover the whole ground of
the Natural History of Perthshire. The present paper is offered
as a contribution towards the filling up of the gaps still remaining.

As will be seen from the Bibliography which is appended to
this paper, the period covered by recorded research in the Moliusca
of Perthshire practically coincides with the period covered by the
existence of the Perthshire Society of Natural Science. The
Society was founded in February, 1867. The first volume of
Jeffrey’s “ British Conchology,” dealing with the Land and Fresh¬
water species, was published in 1862, and contains no references
whatever to Perthshire. Volume V., however, published in 1869,
which has a Supplement, bringing the information up to that cate*
has references to five outstanding Perthshire species, from data
supplied by Dr. Buchanan White. Going still further back, the

* I have used the term “ Perthshire ” throughout this paper in the wider
sense of the area embraced under the three Watsonian Vice-counties, 87, 88,
and 89, the first of which embraces Clackmannanshire, and a small portion of
Stirlingshire, as well as South-west Perthshire “ Perth West ” is always a
contraction for “Vice-county 87, Perth West and Clackmannan.”

l8o TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

other standard work of a past generation, Forbes and Hanley’s
“ History of British Mollusca,” published in 1853, contains no
local reference except to the Pearl Fishery of the Tay, which, of
course, had been well known both to naturalists and historians for
hundreds of years. So also Lovell Reeve’s Hand-book on the “ Land
and Freshwater Mollusks of the British Isles,” published in 1863,
makes no mention of Perthshire, although he gives records from
several other Scottish Counties; and Ralph Tate, in his ‘‘Plain
and Easy Account of the Land and Freshwater Mollusks of Great
Britain,” published in 1866, mentions, like Forbes and Hanley,
only the Pearl Fisheries of the Tay.

When we turn to the first publication issued by our Society,
the “ Proceedings for Session 1869-70,” we find a very different
state of matters. No fewer than seven papers and notes in that little
i2mo volume of 105 pages are devoted to the land and freshwater
shells of the county, showing that by that time a start had been
made in earnest in the investigation of this section of our local
fauna. From that time onwards papers and notes bearing on the
subject have appeared in our Proceedings and Transactions from
time to time, indicating steady progress in the working out of the
distribution.

The progress made from this time onwards may be traced
from the steadily increasing numbers of the species recorded in the
lists which were published at successive dates. Thus we find that
the lists contained in the Proceedings for 1869-70, already referred
to, contain 44 names ; my own list, published in the Proceedings
for 1882, contains 51 names; W. D. Roebuck’s “ Census,” pub¬
lished in the Proceedings of the Royal Physical Society in 1890,
contained 59 names; L. E. Adams’ “ Census,” published in 1896,
contained 68 names; Roebuck’s final “ Census ” of June, 1921,
contained 83 names ; while my present list contains 93 names. It
will thus be seen that within the last fifty years the known Mollus-
can Fauna of Perthshire has been fully doubled, one new species,
on an average, having been added each year.

Turning now more particularly to the last two items in the
foregoing statistics, it will be noticed that ten new species have
been added to the recorded list since June, 1921, that is, in less than
a year. That does not mean that ten new species have been dis¬
covered during that period, as the result of field work. One,
Azeca tridens, had previously been recorded, but was omitted from
the 1921 Census through an oversight; two, Sphyradium minutis -
simum and Valvata cristata , had been discovered by Mr. Fred.
Smith, j’un. , moire than a dozen years ago', but had been omitted to
be recorded at the time, and one, Hyalinia lielvetica, had been
omitted by Roebuck as doubtful, but recorded by Taylor in his
” Monograph.” The remaining six all belong to the Pisidia ,
and have resulted from the re-examination of that critical genus,
as explained below.

HENRY COATES - INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF PERTHSHIRE. 1 8 I

In addition to these ten new county records, the present list
contains no fewer than 27 new vice-county records, distributed
over the three Perthshire vice-counties as shown in the following
table : —

Perth West

Perth Mid

Perth East

Total Vice-

No. 87

No. 88

No. 89

comital Records

1

Records in 1921 Census, |

67

65

64

196

New Records, -

1

6

II

10

I 27

1

Records in Present List,

i

73

76

74

I 223

It will be noticed from the above table that most of the new
records relate to Perth Mid. and Perth East. These are the
divisions of the county in which most work has been done by
members of our Society. In Perth West most of the spade work
was done a number of years ago by an active band of workers
who were members of the Stirling Natural History and Archae¬
ological Society, under the leadership of the late Mr. Gilbert
McDougall. As the result of the combined labours of these
workers, both in the East and in the West, during the past fifty
years, and also the investigations of Conchologists from a distance
who have paid visits to our county from time to time, it is probable
that the Molluscan Fauna of Perthshire is now better worked up
and recorded than that of any other Scottish county. It is probable
also that it contains more records of unique or outstanding interest,
such as. Clausilia laminata, Sphy radium minutissimum and
Limncea glabra for Kinnoull Hill, Valvata cristata and
Dreissensia polymorpha for Perth Harbour, Azeca tridens and
Succinea oblonga for Bridge of Allan district, and Paladestrina
jenkinsi for the lower reaches of the Tay. Of the occasional
visitors referred to above, special mention should be made of Mr.
William Evans, F.R.S.E., of Edinburgh, who has spent many
summer holidays in different parts of Perthshire, such as Callander,
The Trossachs, Aberfoyle, and Loch Tay side, and who never
failed to improve the occasion by adding to our knowledge of the
local fauna, both vertebrate and invertebrate.

With regard to the Pisidia, to which reference has been made
above, all the Perthshire records in the following list are the
result of recent investigation and confirmation by Messrs. Charles
Oldham, A. W. Stelfox, and R. A. Phillips, the Referees of the
Conchological Society for this very difficult genius of minute
bivalves. In November, 1921, I sent to these gentlemen all the
specimens in the Perthshire Natural History Musuem, and got
them back in February, 1922, after a very careful and thorough
examination. At the same time they examined the Perthshire
specimens got by my friend Mr. E. Crapper, formerly of Perth,
now of Dundee. Within the last year or two it had been decided

I 82 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

by the Conchological Society to abandon all the older British
records of Pisidia , as many of them were unreliable in the light of
recent investigation, and a fresh start was made in compiling
new records for the Society’s Census Books. The nomenclature
adopted was, in the main, that of B. B. Woodward’s “ Catalogue
of the British species of Pisidium,” published by the Trustees of
the British Museum in 1913. In Mr. Roebuck’s Census, published
in June, 1921, there were only 6 vice-comital records of Pisidia
for Perthshire. The specimens which Mr. Crapper and I were
able to send to the Referees added 15 new records, bringing up
the total to 21. Taking the whole area of the county, the result
is : — old records, 4; new records, 6; total, 10. The new records,
both vice-comital and comital, are all for Perth Mid. and Perth
East. When Perth West is worked up in the same way, no doubt
equally satisfactory results wall be obtained. Even as it is, how¬
ever, Perthshire now shows a more complete list of records than
any other Scottish county. It includes all the species which have
been known to occur in Scotland with the exception of
P. henslowanum. There still remains, however, a large amount
of work to be done amongst the lakes, ponds, tarns and sluggish
streams of the county before we arrive at anything like a complete
knowledge of the distribution of these interesting little bivalves
in our midst.

Turning now from the historical to the geographical aspect
of our subject, we note first that Perthshire is wholly an inland
county, and its molluscan fauna is, therefore, confined to the non-
marine — that is, the land and freshwater — species. The lower
reaches of the Tay and of its tributary streams, however, near
the confines of the county, are slightly brackish, and there at
least one species, Paludestrina jenkinsi, finds a congenial habitat.

Few counties in Scotland are more favourably situated than
Perthshire for the production of a rich and varied Molluscan
Fauna. Both its topographical and its geological features
contribute towards this result. Its area embraces all elevations
from sea level to peaks of over four thousand feet. It is watered
by a noble river system, embracing practically the whole basin
of the Tay and its tributaries, as well as the north-western portion
of the Forth basin. It includes vast tracts of moorland, wood¬
land, and agricultural land. One half of it consists of hard
crystalline rocks, the other half of soft sedimentary strata, inter¬
mingled with volcanic intrusions. Its hills are cleft by deep shady
glens, whose rocks and vegetation are kept moist by the spray
from dashing torrents and waterfalls. Both in the Highland and
Lowland portions are numerous lakes, ponds, and mountain tarns,
as well as weed-choked marshy pools and ditches.

Geologically, the county divides itself into two well defined
areas, the Highland portion, lying to the north-west, and embracing
a section of the Grampian range of mountains ; and the Lowland
portion, embracing the valleys of Strathmore and the Carse
of Gowrie, with the volcanic ranges of the Sidlaw and

HENRY COATES - INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF PERTHSHIRE. 1 83

Ochil Hills. These two areas are separated from each other by
the line of the Great Fault, which runs diagonally through the
county from north-east to south-west, passing nearly through
Blairgowrie, Birnam, Crieff, Comrie, Callander, and Aberfoyle,
towards the south end of Loch Lomond. T.o the north-west of
this line the rocks consist of the Schists, Quartzites, Slates, Lime¬
stones, Diorites, Felsites, and Granites of the very ancient High¬
land Metamoitphic Series. The rocks to the south-east of the
line of the Great Fault consist of the Sandstones and Conglomerates
of the Old Red Sandstone Series, together with the associated
interbedded volcanic rocks of the Sidlaws and Ochils, consisting
of Andesites, Basalts, Agglomerate, Tuff, etc. In addition to
these, glacial desposits, consisting of Till, or Boulder Clay, and
Morainic material, cover large areas both in the Highland and
Lowland divisions of the county. Lastly, the well-defined Basaltic
Dykes of Tertiary age (intersect all the older rocks in a direction
approximately from east to west. It will be readily understood
that these very varied conditions of rock and soil produce
corresponding variations in the type of Molluscan life found in the
different regions of the county.

For the purpose of studying zoological and botanical distri¬
bution, there are three possible methods of subdividing the area
of Perthshire. It may either be divided (i) hydrographically,
that is, according to the water-sheds and river systems, or (2)
petrographically, that is, according to the geological structure and
rock formations, or (3) by a combination of these two methods.
Neither the first nor the second method is ideally appropriate, for,
as will have been gathered from the previous remarks, the trend
of the river systems cuts clean across that of the geological or
stratigraphicai systems. For this reason the third, or combined,
method has much to recommend it, the only drawback being that
it is somewhat complicated. This last method was the one adopted
by Dr. Buchanan White for his Flora of Perthshire. He divided
the county into thirteen districts, eight of these being in the High¬
land division, and the remaining five in the Lowland division.
For botanical research this may not be too minute a sub-division,
but in the case of the Mollusca such small areas do not seem to> be
necessary. The Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland
therefore adopted the system laid down by H. C. Watson in his
“ Cybele Britannica,” published in 1859, which divides Perthshire
according to the first method described above, namely, the river
systems. For the sake of uniformity, I have adopted the same
method in the present paper. It has to be borne in mind, how¬
ever, that each of the Watsonian divisions of the county embraces
a Highland portion and a Lowland portion, so that they cannot
be regarded as at all homogeneous. The divisions are three in
number, and are as follows : — (1) vice-county No. 87, Perth West
and Clackmannan, embracing the whole of that portion of South-
West Perthshire whose waters drain into the river Forth ; (2) vice-
county No. 88, Perth Mid., embracing the portion of Central

p

184 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

Perthshire whose waters drain into the River Tay, and which lies
to the west of the Garry, Tummel, and Tay ; and (3) vice-county
No. 89, Perth East, embracing that portion of Perthshire whose
waters drain into the River Tay, and which lies to the east of the
Garry, Tummel, and Tay. Vice-county 87 is sometimes -named
“ Perth South,” and vice-county 89 “ Perth North ” ; but on the
whole I think the terms “ East ” and “ West ” are more
appropriate. Strictly speaking, “ Perth South-West ” and
“ Perth North-East ” would be more accurate, but in this case
accuracy must yield to brevity.

There is hardly any limit to variety of places where land and
freshwater mollusks may be found in our county. The land species
should be looked for under stones and logs by the edge of fields ;
on old moss-covered walls and ruins ; on moist rocks ; among rank
vegetation, such as nettles, umbelifers, rushes, and long grass;
in old moist pastures ; on the trunks of trees ; on fungi in the
autumn woods ; among moss, dead leaves, and decaying ferns ;
in fields, woods, moorlands, wastelands, and gardens ; in hedge¬
rows, and by the banks of streams and ditches, and on ivy-clad
cliffs. Even our cellars and outhouses, if they are not unreason¬
ably dry, are pretty sure to yield a few slugs and zonites.
Freshwater species may be looked for in nearly all watery places,
whether flowing or stagnant, such as lakes, ponds, tarns, weedy
pools, marshes, ditches, rivers, streams, dead-waters, disused
quarries, etc. They may even be found out of the water
altogether, among the moss and other vegetation kept soaked
by the spray from mountain torrents and waterfalls.

Certain regions- of Perthshire have received more attention from
the conchologist than others. Thus the districts around the City
of Perth, on both sides of the River Tay, including Kinnoull Hill,
Moncreiffe Hill, Quarry Mill Den, the Muir of Durdie, Stormont-
field, and Glenfarg, with the Tay, and its immediate banks, have
been pretty carefully worked. In the Carse of Gowrie, the deep
glens which seam the flanks of the Sidlaws, as well as many parts
of the Carselands, such as Errol, Longforgan and Invergowrie,
have been visited from time to time. In Strathearn, Forgandenny
and the Dead-waters of the Earn have yielded a number of interest-
ing species. The region around Blairgowrie, and the chain of
lochs which stretch from there to Dunkeld, have proved rich hunting
grounds. In the Highland portion of the county, the parts which
have received most attention are Dunkeld, Birnam, and Inver ;
Ballinluig, Pitlochry and Moulin ; Glen Tilt, Aberfeldv, Killin and
Kenmore, and Loch Tay side generally, as well as Ben Lawers
and Drummond Hill. As already indicated, certain parts of the
south-west corner of the county have been pretty carfully scrutin¬
ised, such as the Trossachs, the Pass of Leny, Aberfoyle, Callander,
the waters of the “ Lake District,” and the country around Bridge
of Allan and Dunblane. My experience, after collecting in all
these districts for more than forty-five years, has led me to the
conclusion that the Highland regions of the county are richer than

HENRY COATES - INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF PERTHSHIRE. I 85

the Lowland regions, both in the variety oi species and the abun¬
dance of specimens, but that in the Lowland regions the specimens
are better developed, both as regards size and colour. Ihis may
perhaps be accounted for, on the one hand, by much greater variety
in the rocks of the Highlands, including limestones and the many
gradations of the schistose formations ; and, on the other hand, by
the greater richness of the soil and vegetation of the Lowlands,
due to the friable nature of the sandstones and other sedimentary
rocks.

It is interesting to note how many species of Mollusca, and
even how many rare and notable species may be collected without
going outside the Borougn Boundaries of the City of Perth. The
gardens and waste grounds yield more than half a dozen species
of slugs, including Limax maximus , Agriolimax agrestris, A. Icevis,
Arion ater , 4. subfuscits , A. ho-'tensis , and A. circumscriptus . On
old walls, and in quarries and odd corners, may be found several of
the commoner Zonitidae and Helicidae, as well as. rarer species,
such as Hycilinia lucida, Hygromia striolata and Pyramidula
rupestris. The larger Helices, such as H. aspersa, H. nemoralis ,
H. horlensis , and Arianta arbustorum, are found in several local¬
ities, both in Kinnoull and Craigie, Of Freshwater Mollusca we
have several species, ranging in size from the lordly pearl mussel
(Margaritcina margaritifera ) to the minute Pisidium casertanum ,
inhabiting the Tay where it flows through the centre of the town.
As we have already seen, the Old Harbour shelters such rare
mollusks as Dreissensia polymorpha and Valvata cristata, as well
as other three species of Pisidium, — P. lilljeborgii, P. Milium, and
P. pulchellum , — while the Town’s Lade yields the equally rare
P. amnicum. In the Town’s Lade is also got another rare bivalve,
Sphcerium lacustre, while S. corneum is - got in the Harbour.
Paludestrina jenkinsi occurs just where the Tay leaves the Borough.
A little further up the river we get the freshwater limpet, Ancylus
fluviatilis , as well as Valvata piscinalis. and Physa fontinalis. The
genera Limncea and Planorbis are respresented by three or four
of the commoner forms. Altogether, there cannot be many towns
of the size of Perth which yield such an interesting Molluscan
Fauna.

In the following list, for the sake of uniformity, I have adhered
rigidly to the classification and nomenclature adopted in Roebuck’s
Census of June, 1921, as being the latest authoritative system.
But, as many of the newer names are still unfamiliar to con-
chologists, like myself, of the older generation, I have added in
these cases the synonyms with which we used to be better
acquainted, although they did not always conform to the “ Law of
Priority.” In every case, both in regard to the records in the
Census of June, 1921, and those that I have added in the present
List, the specimens have been examined and authenticated by the
Recorder and Referees of the Conchological Society. I have
included three doubtful vice-comital records, namely, Testacella
scutulum, Hyalinia helvetica, and Limncea glabra, all in the vice-

I 86 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

county 87, Perth West and Clackmannan, but these are all indicated
as doubtful in the usual way, by being- enclosed in square brackets.
On the other hand, I have removed Helicella virgata from the
category of the “ doubtfuls,” because its identification is beyond
all question, and the locality, Kincardine-on-Forth, actually was
in Perthshire at the date when Dr. Buchanan White discovered it
there.

All new records, not in the 1921 Census, are indicated in the
list by heavier type. The list shows, after the name and synonym,
(1) the number of vice-counties in Great Britain and Ireland from
which the species has been recorded ; (2) the same in Scotland ;
(3) whether it is represented in the Perthshire Natural History
Museum, or “ Wanted to Complete;” (4) its occurrence in or
absence from each of the three Perthshire vice-counties — 87, Perth
West and Clackmannan, 88, Perth Mid., and 89, Perth East — (5)
a brief statement of the habitat it frequents, and (6) a short account
of its distribution in the county, with historical and bibliographical
references. The following abbreviations are used : —

P. S.N. S. = Perthshire Society of Natural Science.

E.S.U.N.S. = East of Scotland Union of Naturalists’
Societies.

S.N. H. A. S. = Stirling Natural History and Archaeological
Society.

R. P.S. = Royal Physical Society [of Edinburgh].

C.S.G.B.I. = Conchological Society of Great Britain and

Ireland.

P.N.H. Mus. = Perthshire Natural History Museum.

S. N. = Scottish Naturalist.

A.S.N.H. = Annals of Scottish Natural History.

J.C. = Journal of Conchology.

Taylor, Mono. = Taylor’s Monograph of the Land and
Freshwater Mollusca of the British Isles.

It now only remains to record my thanks to those Conchologists,
both in the district and at a distance, who have assisted me in
making these notes as complete and trustworthy as possible. Some
of these are with us still ; others, alas ! are no more. Place of
honour must be given to Mr. John W. Taylor, M.Sc., F.L.S., of
Leeds, who has spent a lifetime in compiling the monumental
“ Monograph of the Land and Freshwater Mollusca of the British
Isles,” which, begun in 1894, has now reached its fourth volume.
Mr. Taylor has not only assisted me in identifying specimens from
time to time, but has also most kindly revised the proofs of the
present paper, while Mr. William Evans, of Edinburgh, has kindly
done the same. To the late Mr. W. Denison Roebuck, M.Sc.,
F.L.S., also of Leeds, with whom I corresponded for many years,

I owe much in the way of encouragement and assistance. The
present Recorder of the Conchological Society, Prof. A. E. Boycott,

HENRY COATES INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF PERTHSHIRE. 1 87

F.R.S., of London University, has been unfailing- in his courtesy
in answering enquiries regarding the Society’s Census Records,
and also in getting specimens authenticated for me by the Referees.
He, also, has revised the proofs of the present paper.
I have already referred to the assistance I have received from
Messrs. Oldham, Stelfox, and Phillips in working out the Pisidia.
Coming nearer home, I have to express my sincere thanks to
Mr. E. Crapper, a comparatively recent recruit to the study, who
has done a good deal of collecting around Perth, and in Perth
East, and has placed all his records at my disposal. Lastly I have
to thank my friend Mr. James Menzies, of Perth, who, within the
last few years, has given special attention to the slugs of the
district — Limacidae and Arionidae — a group which I have not
worked up so thoroughly myself as I have some of the other
families. Mr. Menzies, also, has allowed me to make full use of
his notes.

II. — List of Species.

TESTACELLIDAE.

Testacella scutulum, Sow. ( — T . haliotidea, Drap., var. scutulum ,
Moq.-Tand).

Brit., 47. Scot., 5. P.N.H.Mus.

[Perth West.' Perth Mid. O.

Habitat. — Chiefly found in gardens, where it sometimes burrows
deeply into the soil.

Local Distribution. — Found at the Gardens, Dunbarney House,
Bridge of Earn, Perth Mid., by Mr. Davie, gardener, in April,
I9I7 (Scot. Nat., 1917, p. 142. Note by H. Coates. Also Jl.
of Con., XVI. 101. Note by W. D. Roebuck). It was probably
introduced into the gardens with plants from England, or else¬
where.

It was also found at Airthrey Gardens, near Bridge of Allan,
in Perth West, by the late Mr. Gilbert M‘Dougall, of Stirling,
in February, 1896 (Taylor, Mono., II. 263), but the specimens
were not examined and confirmed by the Referees of the Con-
chological Society^ I have, therefore, retained the record for Perth
West, but only within square brackets.

LIMACIDAE.

Limax maximus, Linne.

Brit., 144. Scot., 36. P.N.H.Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

1 88 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

Habitat. — In damp places, both in town and country, such as
cellars, outhouses, gardens, woods, hedgerows, etc. It is found
under old logs and stones, and in crevices of walls.

Local Distribution. — This handsome and finely -marked slug
is fairly abundant in all parts of the county, including the district
around Perth. The var. fasciata was taken by Mr. W. Evans
at Bridge of Cally, in July, 1890 ; by myself at Annat Lodge, Perth
(Taylor, Mono., II, 42) ; and by the late Mr. C. McIntosh at Inver,
near Dunkeld, in September, 1904 (id., p. 266). The var. cellaria,
sub-var. maculata , was got by Mr. W. Evans at Blairgowrie, in
July, 1890 (id., p. 45).

L. cinereoniger , Wolf.

Brit., 64. Scot., 13. Wanted, P.N.H.Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. O.

Habitat. — The “ Grey-black ” slug frequents shady places in
woods, hiding under the bark of dead trees, or among decaying
leaves.

Local Distribution. — In Perth West, it was taken at Loch Ard
by the late Mr. G. McDougall in April, 1897 ; and in Perth Mid.
on Drummond Hill, near Kenmore, by Mr. W. Evans, in May,
1892 (Taylor, Mono., II, 69). It has not been recorded from
Perth East, nor from any place near Perth. The var. cinereo¬
niger, sub-var. razoumowskii, was got by the Rev. R. Godfrey at
Balquhidder, in July, 1904 (id., p. 269).

L. tenellus , Mull.

Brit., 23. Scot., 6. Wanted, P.N.H.Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — Practically confined to woods, where it lives among
decaying pine needles, etc. It is partial to fungoid growths.

Local Distribution. — This slug was lost sight of as a British
species until August, 1904, when specimens found in the Forest of
Rothiemurchus by the Rev. R. Godfrey were identified by the late
Mr. W. D. Roebuck, then our leading authority on this group.
In the following month, September, 1904, it was found in two local¬
ities in our own county, namely, at Inver, near Dunkeld, in Perth
Mid., by the late Mr. C. McIntosh; and in the Clackmannan Pine
Forest, Perth West, by Mr. W. Evans. (Taylor, Mono., II. 270).
See also J.C., XI., 106; A.S.N.H., XIIL, 221; Proc., P.S.N.S.,
IV., p. LI. ; and A.S.N.H., XX., 123.)

In Octber, 1910, Mr. Chas. Oldham found it in abundance at
Pitlochry, in Perth East, feeding on Fungi in a birch wood (J.C. ,
XIIL, 148). Most of the specimens belonged to the var. cincta,
but a few were referable to the var. cerea. The specimens taken
by Mr. McIntosh at Inver also included examples of the var. cerea.
Mr. James Menzies has recently taken L. tenellus on fungi in
Kinfauns Wood, near Perth. (Perth East.)

HENRY COATES - INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF PERTHSHIRE. 189

The known range of this species, both in the British Isles and in
Europe generally, is still very limited.

L. arborum, Bouch. — Chant. ( = L. marginatus, Mull.)

Brit., 137. Scot., 37. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — As its name implies, this is essentially an arboreal
species, being found especially on trees where there is an abundance
of fungoid growths, such as the beech, ash, rowan, alder, willow,
etc. It is frequently found at considerable altitudes, living on bare
rocks or walls.

Local Distribution. — The tree slug has been taken in all three
divisions of the county, but not in the immediate neighbourhood
of Perth. In Perth West it is recorded from Bridge of Allan,
Aberfoyle and Callander. In Perth Mid., it was got by myself
in Glentilt, by Dr. Buchanan White on Ben Lawers, at an elevation
of 3,000 feet (S.N. II., 164), and by Mr. C. McIntosh at Inver.
The var. alpestris, was taken by Mr. W. Evans at Blairgowrie,
Perth East, in July, 1890 (Taylor, Mono., II, 100).

Agriolimax agrestis (Linne). ( = Limax agrestis, Linne.)

Brit., 153. Scot., 41. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — In fields, gardens, hedgerows, and waste places
everywhere.

Local Distribution. — This, the common field slug, is one of the
few species of Mollusca which is found in every county and vice¬
county of England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland. There is
probably hardly a field in the British Isles where it does not abound.

The var. sylvatica was taken by the Rev. J .E. Somerville on
Loch Tay side (Proc., R.P.S., X., 448).

A. Icevis (Mull.) ( = Limax lewis, Miill.)

Brit., 105. Scot., 28. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This, the smallest of our slugs, is found in similar
situations to the last species and also in marshy places, but it is much
more restricted in its range, and less abundant. It is also much
more active in its habits.

Local Distribution. — In Perth West, it has been taken at the
Port of Menteith, at Dollar, at Wharry Glen, near Bridge of Allan,
and at Callander, by Mr. W. Evans. In Perth East Mr. Evans
took it at Lawers and Fearnan, on Loch Tay side, while the Rev.
R. Gordon took it in Glen Ogle, near Lochearnhead. Mr. James
Menzies has taken it in more than one locality near Perth, on both
sides of the Tay.

I90 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

Milax sowerbyi (Ferussac). ( = Limax sowerbii , Fer.,

= L. marginatus, Jeff.)

Brit., 94. Scot., 9. Wanted, P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. O. O.

Habitat. — This slug* is of a retiring- habit, passing- most of
its time in holes in the ground, or crevices of old walls, where many
individuals congregate together. It also hides under stones and
dead leaves.

Local Distribution. — This slug, which is by no means common,
was taken at Inchmahome, Lake of Menteith, Perth West, by the
late Mr. G. McDougall, in October, 1895 (Trans., S.N.H.A.S.,
1894-95, P- 25)* It has not yet been recorded from Perth Mid. or
Perth East.

M. gagates (Drap.). ( = Limax gagates, Drap., = Amalia gagates,
Moquin Tandon.)

Brit., 87 Scot., 10. Wanted, P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. O. O.

Habitat. — Like M. sowerbyi , this is a shy species, hiding under
the ground, except after heavy rain. It is found under decaying
vegetation in gardens, at the foot of old walls and hedgerows, etc.

Local Distribution. — This slug, like the last, has been recorded
from Perth West, but not from Perth Mid or East. It was
found by the late Mr. G. McDougall on the south side of the Abbey
Craig, Bridge of Allan, in March, 1897 (Trans., S.N.H.A.S.,
1897-98, p. 138). The var. rava was found in a garden at Callander
bv Mr. W. Evans, in September, 1906 (A.S.N.H., 1906, p. 241).

/

ZONITIDAE.

Vitrina pellucida (Mull.)

Brit., 148. Scot., 39. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — To be found everywhere, in damp places, under stones
and leaves, among decaying vegetable matter, moss, etc.

Local Distribution. — This is one of the most abundant, as well
as one of the most beautiful, of our land shells. It is found in
every part of the county, and in nearly every county of Scotland.
It reaches a height of 1,750 feet in Glen Tilt, and 3,000 feet on
Craig Calleagh. Mr. Frank F. Laidlaw- reports that it has been
found at heights of from 2,500 to 3,800 feet on Ben Lawers (J.C.,
XII., 192).

Hyalinia crystallina (Miill.) ( = Zonites crystallinus , Gray.)

Brit., 147. Scot., 38. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

HENRY COATES - INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF PERTHSHIRE. 191

Habitat. — This is a shy species, keeping out of sight, under
stones and among roots of mosses, in moist and sheltered situations.

Local Distribution. — This beautiful little shell, which well
merits its specific name, is found in practically every part of the
county. The var. contracta has been taken by Mr. W. Evans in
the Pass of Leny, near Callander, Perth West (Taylor, Mono.,
III., 1 1 4) .

Dr. Buchanan White found this species in Glen Tilt at an altitude
of 1,750 feet, in 1878.

Hyalinia lucida (Drap.). ( = H. draparnaldi, Weinland.)

Brit., 56. Scot., 9. P.N.H. Mus.

O. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — Generally found in colonies, in moist and sheltered
situations, in gardens, woods and waste grounds. During the
heat of the day, and in dry weather, it hides under stones, or in
crevices of rocks and walls.

Local Distribution. — This species was not recognised as one
of our local mollusks until April, 1909, when it was taken by Mr.
Fred. Smith, Jun., in Messrs. Dickson and Turnbull’s Nurseries,
Perth, in Perth East. In August of the same year it was taken
by Mr. Jas. Leslie at Aberfeldy, in Perth Mid. (Proc., P.S.NS.,
vol. V. pp. XXI. and LIX.). It has also been taken by Mr. Jas.
Menzies at Perth Harbour, on the right bank of the Tay, in Perth
Mid.

It is possible that this shell, which is the handsomest of the
Zonitidae, may previously have been mistaken for H. cellaria,
which it resembles in some respects. It should be looked for in
other districts of the county.

H. cellaria (Mull.). ( = Zonites cellarius, Jeff.)

Brit., 152. Scot., 40. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This mollusk, as its specific name implies, has a
partiality for cellars, and damp dark outhouses, but it is also
found under stones and logs in hedgerows, banks, and waste places
generally.

Local Distribution. — This species, which is the most widely
distributed of our Zonitidae, is found not only in every part of our
county, but in every county and vice-county of Great Britain and
Ireland, with the exception of Sutherland West (No. 108). The
largest specimens I have taken in Perthshire were under stones
on a grassy bank between the Lade and the River Tay above
Stormontfield, where the ground is always kept more or less moist
by the two streams.

The vars. compacta and complanata were taken by the late
Dr. Buchanan White near Perth (S.N., 1873, II., 165).

192 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

[H. Helvetica , Blum. ( =Zonites glabra, Jeff.)]

Brit., 69. Scot., 10. Wanted, P.N.H. Mus.

[Perth West.] O. O.

Habitat. — “ Inhabits, by preference, very shady and almost
gloomy woods and thickets ” (Taylor, Mono., II., 49).

Local Distribution. — This rare Hyalinia was recorded for Perth
West by the late Mr. G. McDougall, under the following circum¬
stances. Mr. Scott, of the High School, Stirling, discovered nine
specimens amongst some Sphagnum which was covering a flower
pot in the school. On enquiry it was found that the janitor had
got the Sphagnum from a friend in Alva, who had gathered it in
the wood at Brucefield, near Dollar, in Perth West. (Trans.,
S.N.H.A.S., 1895-96, p. 141.) On this somewhat slender evidence,
Mr. Taylor admits the vice-comital record in his “ Monograph,”
but it is not included in Roebuck’s Census of June, 1921. As the
record seems of doubtful value, I have only retained it in the present
list within square brackets.

Hyalinia alliaria (Miller). ( = Zonites alliarius , Miller.)

Brit., 148. Scot., 41. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — Under stones, on banks, and in shady places.

Local Distribution. — This species, the “ Garlic Snail,” is widely
distributed, but not so abundant as H. cellaria. It is found in all
parts of the county, but more commonly in the Highland than in
the Lowland districts.

The var. viridula was taken on Abbey Craig, Bridge of Allan,
Perth West, by the late Mr. G. McDougall (Trans., S.N.H.A S.,
1895-96, p. 141).

H. nitidula (Drap.). [ = Zonites nitidulus, Gray.)

Brit., 147. Scot., 36. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — Under stones and logs, in moist and shady places.
Also among moss and decaying leaves in woods and hedgerows.

Local Distribution. — This species is widely distributed in the
county, and occurs nearly everywhere, if a suitable habitat is to
be found.

Dr. Buchanan White found the var. nitens “ more common
than the type, and frequenting drier places ” (S.N., II., 165).

R. Rimmer states that the Rev. J. McMurtrie had informed
him that in Perthshire he had found specimens of H. nitidula
which emitted a strong smell of garlic (L. and F.-W. Shells of the
British Isles, p. 102).

HENRY COATES - INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF PERTHSHIRE.

193

H. pura (Aid.). ( — Zomtes purus, Moq.-Tand.)

Brit., 137. Scot., 33. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — In moist shady places, beneath decaying trees,
among moss, leaves, etc.

Local Distribution. — Widely distributed in both the Highland
and Lowland districts of the county.

This species occurs both of a pale horn colour, and of a pearly
white. J. Gwynn Jeffreys considered the former to be the type,
and named the white form var. margaritacea. J. W. Taylor, on
the other hand, considers the white form to be the type, and the
horn-coloured form a variation. On the whole, I prefer to adhere
to Jeffrey’s view. Dr. Buchanan White says, “ The var.
margaritacea seems to be commoner than the typical form ” (S.N.,
II., 165). In my experience the same is true as regards Perth¬
shire. I have taken the white form in several localities both in
Perth Mid. and Perth East. The late Mr. G. McDougall took it
on Abbey Craig, Bridge of Allan, in Perth East (Trans.,
S.N.H.A.S., 1895-96, p. 141).

H. radiatula (Alder). ( — Zonites radiatulus, Gray.)

Brit., 142. Scot., 35. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This is a moisture-loving species. It is found in
damp pastures and woods, among moss and grass, and under stones
and decaying logs.

Local Distribution. — It is widely distributed, but by no means
common in the county. I have taken it in the immediate neigh¬
bourhood of Perth, on Kinnoull Hill, at Stormontfield, and
Pitlochry, in Perth East ; and at Birnam and Forgandenny, in Perth
Mid. In Perth West it was got at Callander, Bridge of Allan,
Pass of Leny, and Braendam.

The var. viridula was got by the Rev. R. Godfrey at Crieff,
Perth Mid., in June, 1904; and the var. viridula, sub-var.
viridicenti-alba, at Strathyre, Perth West, by Mr. W. Evans
(Taylor Mono., III., 94).

Euconidus fulvus (Mull.). ( = Zonites fulvus, Mull.)

Brit., 143. Scot., 39. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — In damp shady woods and moist pastures, under
rotten branches and logs, or amongst moss. Under stones in
quarries, hedgerows, etc.

Local Distribution. — Widely distributed in suitable localities
throughout the county. I have taken it in each of the three vice¬
counties, and have also taken the var. mortoni on Kinnoull Hill,
Perth East.

194 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

Zonitoidss nitidus (Mull.). ( = Zonites nitidus, Mull.)

Brit., 1 12. Scot., 15. Wanted, P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. O Perth East.

Habitat. — In wet shady places, under stones, and at the roots
of grass and other herbage. It is especially partial to the roots of
aquatic grasses at the margins of ponds and watercourses.

Local Distribution. — This is nowhere a common species, and in
Perthshire it is rare. It has been taken by Mr. W. Evans at
Butterstone Loch, near Dunkeld, Perth East (Proc., R.P.S., X.,
438). This is just the sort of place where it would be likely to be
found. It was also gathered by the late Mr. G. McDougall about
ditches at Cornton, in Perth West (Trans., S.N.H.A.S., 1894-95,
p. 26).

Z. excavatus (Bean). ( = Zonites excavatus , Bean.)

Brit., 67. Scot., 15. Wanted, P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. o.

Habitat. — In damp shady woods, under stones and decaying
timber. Unlike most species of land mollusca, it is not specially
partial to calcareous soils.

Local Distribution. — This is one of the rarer species of the
Zonitidae, and is very limited in its range of distribution. In
Perthshire it has been taken in three localities only. In Perth
West it was got by Mr. W. Evans at Strathyre, near Callander,,
and by the late Mr. G. McDougall at the foot of Loch Ard, in April,
1897 (Trans., S.N.H.A.S., 1897-98, p. 138). In Perth West it
was also taken by Mr. W. Evans at Achtoo, near Balquhidder, in
1902 (Taylor, Mono., III., 139). In Perth Mid. it was got by
Mr. W. Evans at Fearnan in April, 1892. It has not yet been
recorded from Perth East.

I have not taken either this or the preceding species myself,
and there is no representative of either in the Perthshire Natural
History Museum.

ARIONIDAE.

Anon ater (Linnd).

Brit., 151. Scot., 41. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — The common Black Slug is very widely distributed,,
in both wild and cultivated places, such as kitchen gardens, damp
and shady woods, thickets, road-side hedges, wells, etc. Except
on very dull days, it usually hides under cover during the day,
only showing itself after a heavy shower of rain, or at dusk or night.
It attains a higher altitude than any of the other slugs, being found
near the summit of some of our highest mountains.

HENRY COATES - INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF PERTHSHIRE. 195

Local Distribution. — Found in every part of the county, and
at all elevations. The late Dr. Buchanan White took it on Ben
Lawers at an altitude of about 3,000 feet (M.S. note in his inter¬
leaved copy of Lovell Reeve’s “ Mollusca ”). In dry seasons
it keeps out of sight, but after a shower of rain it comes out in
abundance, when numbers may be seen crossing the wet country
roads.

The var. aterrima was taken by Mr. W. Evans, in September,
1902, on the summit of Ben Vorlich, Perth West (3224 feet) ; and
also by Mr. A. Somerville at Callander, in the same vice-county,
in April, 1888 (Taylor, Mono., II., 176). The var. pallescens
was found by the late Mr. G. McDougall, beside his own house
near Stirling, in Perth West (Trans., S.N.H.A.S., 1894-95, P- 25)-

A. subfuscus (Drap.). ( = A. flavus, Pollon.)

Brit., 132. Scot., 35. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This is a widely distributed slug, but it is never very
abundant. It is particularly partial to fungi, such as Rusula
fuscata and Agaricus muscarius , and is thus generally to be found
in woods where these and similar fungi occur.

Local Distribution. — This slug is widely distributed throughout
the county, especially in woods where fungi are plentiful in autumn.
It is found in waste places, both in the Highland and Lowland
districts, but not often in gardens. It is fairly common around
Perth, on both sides of the Tay.

The var. cinereo-fusca was got in Glen Ogle, Lochearnhead,
Perth Mid., by the Rev. R. Godfrey, in June, 1904; and by the
side of the Dunkeld Road, Perth, Perth Mid., by Mr. W. Evans,
in September, 1904 (Taylor, Mono., II., 207). He also got the
var. fuliginea, sub-var. brunnea in the same locality (id., p. 199).
The vars. succinea and fuliginea were got at Pitlochry, Perth East,
in 1910, by Mr. Chas. Oldham (J. C. , XIII., 148).

A. minimus, Simroth. ( = A. intermedins, Normand.)

Brit., 133. Scot., 33. Wanted, P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This is not a garden slug. It seems to prefer open
country to cultivated ground. It is a fungivorous species and
is found in damp woods, hedgebanks, etc. It is widely distributed,
and is said to be common everywhere.

Local Distribution.— This small slug is widely distributed in the
county, but does not appear to be very plentiful. Possibly it has
been overlooked in many localities, or mistaken for the young of
other species. It has been recorded from Callander, Aberfoyle,
Dollar, and Bridge of Allan, in Perth, West, and from Ben Lawers

I96 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

and Glen Ogle, in Perth Mid. (Taylor, Mono., II., 248). In Perth
East, Mr. W. Evans found it at Persie Inn, Glenshee (Proc.,
R.P.S., X., 445). Mr. Menzies has not taken it in the neighbour¬
hood of Perth.

A. hortensis, Ferussac.

Brit., 150. Scot., 38. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This, as its name implies, is essentially a garden
slug, although it is sometimes found in wild places, such as damp
hedgerows, woods, and meadows. It prefers a heavy soil, and
is found beneath logs and stones. It is widely distributed, and

by no means uncommon.

-

Local Distribution. — The Garden Arion is found in most parts
of the county. It has been recorded from Callander, Dollar, Abbey
Craig' (Bridge of Allan), and Balquhidder, in Perth West; from
Glen Tilt, Glen Ogle, and Inver, in Perth Mid., and from Glen
Shee, in Perth East (Taylor, Mono., II., 224).

This slug, which is easily identified by the yellow sole of the
foot, is fairly common around Perth, on both sides of the Tay.

A. circumscriptus , Johnston. ( = A. bourguignati, Mabille.)

Brit., 145. Scot., 41. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This slug is widely distributed, being' found like
A. ater, in every vice-county of Scotland, and nearly every vice¬
county of England and Ireland. It is not a garden species, but is
found more generally in woods, open fields, and cultivated grounds,
on decaying tree trunks, under fallen leaves, and in the stem and
cap of large mushrooms and other fungi.

Local Distribution. — This slug is common in most parts of the
county, in woods, and waste places generally. It is abundant
around Perth, on both sides of the river. It has been recorded
from all three divisions of the county, both in their Highland and
their Lowland areas.

HELICIDAE.

Punctum pygmceum (Drap.). ( = Helix pygmaea, Drap.)

Brit., 127. Scot., 30. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This tiny shell is found in moist and shady woods
and other damp situtations, hiding under stones, amongst decaying
leaves and moss, or at the roots of grass and rushes.

Local Distribution. — It is widely distributed throughout the
county, but not very abundant. In Perth West it was got by
Mr. W. Evans, in the Pass of Leny, near Callander (Proc., R.P.S.,

HENRY COATES - INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF PERTHSHIRE. 1 97

X., 473). I have taken it at several localities in Perth Mid. and
Perth East, especially in the Highland districts. It may be
collected in the same way as recommended for Acanthinuld
lamellata below.

Pyramidula rupestris (Drap.). ( — Helix rupestris, Drap.)

Brit., 84. Scot., 4. P.N.H. Mus..

O. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This little snail, as its name implies, is to be found
on old walls, ruins, or rocks, frequently in bare and bleak situations,
exposed to the sun. It reaches considerable elevations on mountain
slopes, where it may be found among- the debris of the rocks.

Local Distribution. — I have taken this interesting- little shell on
Kinnoull Hill, in Perth East. It has also been taken in two locali¬
ties in Perth Mid., although these were not recorded in Roebuck’s
Census of June, 1921. In June, 1908, Mr. Fred. Smith, Jun., took
it on some rocks by the Edinburgh Road, near Perth, and in
August, 1909, Mr. Jas. Leslie got it near Aberfeldy. The speci¬
mens have now been authenticated by the Recorder and Referees of
the Conchological Society. It had previously been taken on
Moncreiffe Hill, also in Perth Mid., by the late Mr. J. Dawson
(Proc., P.S.N.S., 1869-70, p. 18).

P. rotundata (Mull.). ( = Helix rotundata, Mull.)

Brit., 151. Scot., 40. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This is the most abundant of all the Helicidae, and
is practically ubiquitous as regards its habitat. It is found in
damp places everywhere, under stones and logs, under the bark
of old trees, and on rocks and walls.

Local Distribution. — This little snail is abundant everywhere
in the county. I have taken it in all three vice-counties, and found
it equally abundant in the Highlands and in the Lowlands. I have
taken the var. alba near Clunie Bridge, Pitlochry, in Perth Mid.,
and the var. pyramidalis in Quarry Mill Den, near Perth, in Perth
East. The var. alba was also got by the late Mr. G. McDougall
at Cornton, near Bridge of Allan, in Perth West, in May, 1897
(Trans., S.N.H.A.S., 1897-98, p. 138).

Helicella virgata (Da Costa). ( = Helix virgata, Mont.)

Brit., 94. Scot., 3. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. - O. O.

Habitat. — This is essentially a maritime species, never found
far from the sea coast. It is very gregarious, and is frequently
found in large numbers on grassy downs, heaths,, and sand-dunes.

198 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

Local Distribution. — The claim of this mollusk to be regarded
as a Perthshire species rests on a somewhat slender basis. One
specimen was found by the late Dr. Buchanan White near
Kincardine-on-Forth, in August, 1890. The locality was, at that
date, in Perthshire, but it was shortly afterwards transferred to
Fifeshire by the Boundary Commissioners. The specimen is now
preserved in the Perthshire Natural History Museum. (See S.N.,
XL, 126.)

In June, 1901, Mr. W. Evans found some more specimens of
H. virgata on some old ballast heaps near the same locality
(A.S.N.H., X., 183). By this time, however, the boundary had
been changed, so that Fifeshire now claims this more recent
discovery. The position is surely a unique one, with two Faunal
Counties each claiming the same species, got in the same locality,
but at different dates !

Ashfordia granulata (Alder). ( = Helix sericea, Jeffreys.)

Brit., 74. Scot., 18. Wanted, P.N.H. Mus.

O. O. Perth East.

Habitat. — This is essentially a moisture-loving snail, being
found on damp mossy banks, moist woods, and banks of streams.

Local Distribution. — This species is fairly common in many
parts of England, but is rare in Scotland. Only a single specimen
has been taken in Perthshire, that one having been taken by Mrs.
Carphin at Dunkeld, in Perth East, about 1892 (A.S.N.H., II.,
167). After Mrs. Carphin’s death, her collection of shells was
acquired by the governing body of University College, Dundee,
for their Natural History Museum, but I do not know whether
this specimen was amongst them.

Hygromia jusca (Mont.). ( = Helix fusca, Mont.)

Brit., 86. Scot., 26. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This fragile shell is more partial to the northern than
to the southern portion of the United Kingdom. It loves deep
shady glens, such as are to be found in our Highlands, where there
is an abundance of moisture. There it may be found crawling
amongst the rank vegetation, such as grasses, rushes, nettles,
brambles, ferns, etc. It may frequently be captured by sweeping
such herbaceous growths with an entomologist’s net.

Local Distribution. — This species is decidedly local in the county,
and nowhere abundant. I have taken it at Ardoch, in Perth West,
and Pitlochry, in Perth Mid. Mr. Fred. Smith, Jun., found it
at Kinfauns, and Pitroddie Den, in Perth East. Mr. Evans
collected it in two localities near Callander, and in Wharry Glen.

HENRY COATES - INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF PERTHSHIRE. 199

H. hispida (Linne). [ — Helix hispida , Linne.)

Brit., 137. Scot., 26. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This, the Hairy Snail, is another abundant and nearly
ubiquitous species, except in the North of Scotland, beyond the
Grampians. It is found in both wild and cultivated places, under
stones and logs, among moss and decaying vegation, in woods,
gardens, hedges, and rural places generally.

Local Distribution. — This species, which now includes the
Helix concinna of Jeffreys, is abundant everywhere, in each division
of the county, and in the Highlands equally with the Lowlands.
I have taken the var. albida at Perth, and the var. subglobosa at
Pitlochry. The var. subrufa was got by the late Dr. Buchanan
White on Kinnoull Hill. The vars. albo-cincta, hispidosa , nitidula
and albida were got by the late Mr. G. McDougall near Bridge of
Allan (Trans., S.N.H.A.S., 1895-96).

H. striolata (C. Pfr.). [ = Helix rujescens, Mont.)

Brit., 123. Scot., 15. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This species, which is common in England, but rare
in Scotland, frequents the same kind of haunts as the preceding
species, to which it is closely allied. It is also found among rank
grass, nettles and brambles.

Local Distribution. — This snail wras unknown as a Perthshire
species until 1894, when the late Mr. G. McDougall discovered
it in two or three localities around Bridge of Allan, in Perth West
(Trans., S.N.H.A.S., 1894-95, p. 26). In January, 1907, the late
Mr. W. Wyllie, Jun., discovered it in his father’s garden, which
runs down to the River Tay, in Commercial Street, Bridgend, Perth
(Perth East). In October of the following year it was found by
Mr. Fred. Smith, Jun., in Kinnoull School Quarry, Perth (Perth
East). Finally, in August, 1910, it was taken by another young
collecter, Mr. Jas. Leslie, at Aberfeldy, in Perth Mid., thus com¬
pleting the records for the three vice-counties. (See Proc.,
P.S.N.S., vol. V., pp. VII. and X.) This last find, in Perth
Mid., was not recorded in Roebuck’s Census of June, 1921, but
the specimen has now been authenticated by the Recorder and
Referees of the Conchological Society.

In passing, it may be mentioned that some of the best work
in investigating the Mollusca of the county has been done by some
of our enthusiastic junior naturalists.

Acanthinula aculeata (Mull.). ( = Helix aculeata, Mull.)

Brit., 120. Scot., 24. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Q

200 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

Habitat, — This beautiful little shell, which is distinguished
by its crown of spines, is found among small stones and dead
leaves in moist woods, hedge-banks, and waste places generally.

Local Distribution. — This species is fairly plentiful in the
county, in suitable situations. I have taken it on Kinnoull Hill,
in Perth East, and at Pitlochry, in Perth Mid., as well as other
localities. In Perth West, it was taken by Mr. W. Evans in the
vicinity of Bridge of Allan (A.S.N.H., III., 156).

A. lamellata (Jeffreys). [ — Helix lamellata, Jeffr.)

Brit., 56. Scot., 19. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This is a northern and rather local species. The
best description of its habitat I have seen is that by the late Dr.
Buchanan White in the “ Scottish Naturalist,” vol. II., p. 167,
written just fifty years ago — “ In wooded Highland glens, where
I have found it at an elevation of 1,200 feet. It inhabits woods,
especially of birch, living amongst dead leaves, especially
the decaying fronds of the softer ferns, such as Aspidium oreopteris,
and the Lady Fern.

In the same article he recommends, as the best method of collect¬
ing this and similar small species, to gather a quantity of the dead
and decaying fronds of such ferns, as well as dead leaves generally,
take them home in a bag, and spread them out on sheets of paper
on the floor. When the leaves, etc., are quite dry, a rich harvest
of minute shells may sometimes be reaped.

Local Distribution. — This beautiful little shell wras first taken
in the county by the late Dr. Buchanan White, who discovered
it on Birnam Hill, Perth Mid., in May, 1870. (Proc. , P.S.N.S.,
for 1869-70, p. 99.) I have since taken it in the same locality,
and also at Craighall, near Blairgowrie, in Perth East. In Perth
Mid. it was also taken at Aberfeldy, by Mr. Jas. Leslie, and at
Drummond Hill, near Kenmore, by Mr. W. Evans (A.S.N.H.,
I., 235). In Perth West it was got by the late Mr. G. McDougall,
near Bridge of Allan (Trans., S.N.H.A.S., 1897-98, p. 138), and
by Mr. W. Evans in Keltie Ravine, near Callander, in April, 1892.
In the county it is decidedly local.

Vallonia pulchella (Muller). [ = Helix pidcliella, Mull.)

Brit., 134. Scot., 18. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This little shell, which is well named “ Beautiful,”
is generally found in open exposed waste places, rather than in
woods. It takes refuge under stones and logs of wrood, in old
walls, and among the roots of grass and other herbage.

HENRY COATES— INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF PERTHSHIRE.

201

Local Distribution. — This is another very local species. I have
taken it on Kinnoull Hill, in Perth East, and it has also been taken
by Mr. Fred. Smith, Jun., at Callerfountain, near Perth, in Perth
Mid. In Perth West it was found by the late Mr. G. McDougall
among boulders on Abbey Craig, near Bridge of Allan (Trans.,
S.N.H.A.S., 1894-95, p. 26).

V. costata (Mull.). ( = Helix pulchella, Mull., var. costata.)

Brit., 88. Scot., 9. P.N.H. Mus.

O. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — The same as for V. pulchella , with which it is prob¬
ably equally widely distributed, although it has not been
differentiated for a sufficent length of time for the distribution to
be fully recorded.

Local Distribution. — Until quite recently, this species was
regarded as a variety of V. pulchella , distinguished by the trans¬
verse raised ridges on the shell. Even yet its position is not
determined beyond all doubt. I have taken it on Kinnoull Hill,
in Perth East, and also at Birnam, in Perth Mid.

Arianta arbustorum (Linne). ( = Helix arbustorum , L.)

Brit., 1 13. Scot., 39. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This handsome snail is, as its name implies, partial
to copses and shady thickets. It is found at higher altitudes than
any other of our larger species, reaching almost to the snow-line
in the Alps. In our own country it occurs at all elevations, from
sea level up to about 4,000 feet, or the limit of maximum glaciation
in central Scotland.

Local Distribution. — This snail is not so widely distributed in
the county as Helix nemoralis , but it is fairly abundant where it
does occur, especially in the Highland districts. I have taken it
in all three vice-counties. It reaches considerable elevations on
our mountains. I have taken it on the shoulders of Ben Vrackie,
above Pitlochry ; Dr. Buchanan White found it abundant in Glen
Tilt, on limestone rocks, up to a height of 1,600 feet (J.C., III.,
pp. 241 and 302) ; the late Mr. A. M. Rodger found it on Ben Lui
at 2,000 feet; and Mr. Frank F. Laidlaw took it on Ben Lawers
at heights varying from 2,500 to 3,800 feet (J.C., XII., 192 —
“ Shells at High Altitudes in Scotland ”).

Four varieties of this species have been taken in the county.
The dwarf or alpine form, var. alpicola, formerly known as
alpestris, — is the one most commonly met with at high altitudes.
In June, 1875, I found it abundant on the banks of the Craigeour
Burn, above Moulin, Pitlochry (Perth East), at 500-600 feet (S.N.
III., 160). It is also common in Glen Tilt, where it occurs in

202 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

company with the var. flavescens, of a pale yellow colour (Proc.,
P.S.N.S., 1881-86, p. 215). The var. flavescens was also taken
at Kenmore, Perth Mid., by Mr. T. Scott, F.L.S. (Proc., R.P.S.,
X., 466). The var. picea , sub-var. fusca, was found on Ben More,
in Perth West, by Rev. W. C. Hey (Taylor, Mono., III., 432).
Lastly, the var. rudis was got at Pitroddie Den, in Perth East, by
Mr. Fred. Smith, Jun., (id., p. 431.)

Helix aspersa, Muller.

Brit., 138. Scot., 30. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This, the “ Common Garden Snail ”of the South of
England, is by no means common in Scotland, where it is seldom
met with in gardens. In Scotland, indeed, it is chiefly confined
to the vicinity of the sea coast, although it sometimes occurs at
inland stations. It frequents woods, hedges, waste spaces, and
cultivated ground around houses, and is especially partial to old
ivy-covered walls and rocks.

Local Distribution. — This, the largest of the Scottish Helicidae,
occurs only very sparingly in Perthshire. I have taken it on
Kinnoull Hill, and also on the ivy-hung rocks by the Dundee Road,
near Barnhill, where it has been long established It has also been
taken at more than one spot at Craigie, another suburb of Perth
on the opposite side of the river Tay (Proc., P.S.N.S., vol. V.,
p. LIX.) Other localities from which it has been reported are
Methven and Madderty, in Perth Mid., where it was got by Mr.
Jas. Leslie; Longforgan and Invergowrie, in Perth East, where
the late Dr. Buchanan White found it (S.N., VIII., 40I ; Blair¬
gowrie, also in Perth East, where it was taken by Mr. W. Evans
(Proc., R.P.S., X., 462); and Remonv, near Loch Tay, where
it was got by the late Mr. Duncan Dewar (Proc., P.S.N.S., 1881-
86, p. 216). In Perth West it was taken by the late Mr. G.
McDougall near Bridge of Allan (Trans., S.N.H.A. S., 1895-96,
p. 142).

None of the varieties of H. aspersa have been recorded from
Perthshire, although as a rule it is a very variable species.

H. nemoralis, Linne.

Brit., 138. Scot., 28. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This beautiful banded snail derives its specific name
from its partiality to groves and woodlands. It has a wide
distribution, being found in gardens, woods, hedgebanks, fields,
cliffs, quarries, etc., throughout Britain, except in the extreme
North of Scotland. Like the last species, it is fond of ivy-covered
walls and rocks.

HENRY COATES - INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF PERTHSHIRE. 203

Local Distribution. — This snail, with its conspicuous shell, is
widely distributed and fairly abundant in all parts of the county.
It is one of the moist variable of the Helicidae , both as regards
the shape and size of the shell, and its colouring and ornamentation.
A number of these variations have been recorded from the county,
and others could no doubt be added to the list, were a more careful
search made with this object in view. The following are some
of the more noticeable forms : —

Var. minor. This small form was got at Balgowan by the
late Dr. Buchanan White, who remarked that it seemed to pass
gradually into hortensis (S.N., 1873, II., 166). In these days,
however, the distinction between the two species was not so well
understood as it is now. The same variety was also taken at
Bridgeton, near Almondbank, by the late Mr. H. Wilkie.

Var. fasciata, sub-var. cincta, is a common form. It has been
taken in the vicinity of Perth, at Balgowan, Almondbank, and other
places.

Var .libellula, sub-var. jtava (yellow, self-coloured), is also fairly
common. It has been taken at the same localities as the last
variety, as well as several localities in Perth West.

Var. castanea. This variety, which is of a chestnut self-
colour, is not quite so common as the last. It has been taken in
the same localities.

Var. rubella. This beautiful rose-coloured variety has been
recorded from Balgowan, Blairgowrie, Dunkeld, and Birnam
(Taylor, Mono., III., 305) ; also from the Pass of Leny, near
Callander, and Drummond Hill, near Kenmore (A.S.N.H., I., 236).

Var. hyalozonata. This somewhat rare variety, with trans¬
lucent bandings, was got by the late Mr. J. Dawson at Balgowan,
in 1869.

Var. olivacea. This is also a rare variety, of a deep olive
brown tint, with a shade of violet inside. One specimen was got
by the late Mr. G. McDougall at Parkhead, Airthrey, near Bridge
of Allan, in Perth West, in 1895. the district around Bridge
of Allan Mr. McDougall also got the varieties rubella, castanea ,
and libellula (Trans., S.N.H.A.S., 1895-96, p. 141).

[For further remarks on the banding of H. nemoralis and
H. hortensis in Perthshire, see a paper on this subject by the
present writer in the Proceedings of the P.S.N.S., 1881-86, p. 145.]

H. hortensis , Muller. ( =H. nemoralis , L., var. hortensis . )

Brit., 126. Scot., 36. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. . Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This, the “ Garden Snail ” proper, was formerly
looked upon as a variety of the last species, which it closely
resembles, but more careful anatomical examination has revealed
specific differences, in addition to. the colour of the tip. It is a more

204 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

northern species, extending into the Orkney and Shetland Islands.
Its habitat is similar to that of H. nem oralis. Both species are
gregarious, being generally found in considerable colonies.

Bocal Distribution. — This species, like the last, is found in all
parts of the county, but it is rather more abundant in the Highland
than in the Lowland districts, whereas the reverse is the case with
regard to H. nemoralis. The two species are subject to nearly
the same variations of size, shape, colour, and banding. The
following are the principal varieties of hortensis recorded for the
county : —

Var. minor, a small form, got at Inchture and Balgowan.

Var. alba, with a white shell. This rather scarce varietv was

y J

found by the side of the Edinburgh Road, Perth (Perth Mid.), in
April, 1909, by Mr. Fred. Smith, Jun.

Var. lutea — yellow, self-coloured. This form is fairly common.
It has been taken at Balgowan and Almondbank ; also in Glen
Tilt, where Dr. Buchanan White found it at an elevation of 1,600
feet. It was also' found in abundance on Abbey Craig, Bridge of
Allan, by Mr. G. McDougall (Trans., S.N.H.A.S., 1895-96, p. 141).

Var. trochoidea, sub -var. c.onica. This variety, which, as its
name implies, has the spire raised more than usual, wTas taken by
Mr. John Mason at Inchture, Perth East, in 1901.

Var. arenicola ( — hyalozonata), with translucent banding. This
rather scarce variety was found by Mr. Fred. Smith, Jun., by the
side of the Edinburgh Road, Perth, in company with the var. alba ,
already referred to.

Var. roseozonata (vinosofasciata, Coates), shell with rose-
coloured bands. I took this beautiful variety at Balgowan, Perth
Mid., in 1884 (Taylor Mono., III., 353).

BULIMINIDAE.

Ena obscura (Mull.). ( = Bulimus obscurus, Mull.).

Brit., 99. Scot., 16. P.N.H. Mus.

O. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This species is somewhat restricted in its distribution,
but not uncommon where it does occur, in Scotland. It is con¬
fined to the Eastern Counties, as far north as the Moray Firth.
It is found in moist and shady places, among heaps of stones,
on rocks, old walls, trunks of trees, etc.

Local Distribution. — This interesting little mollusk is fairly
abundant in East and Mid. Perth, especially in the Highland
districts, but it has, not yet been recorded from Perth West. I
in Quarry Mill Den, and around Pitlochry. Dr. Buchanan White
have found it fairly plentiful on Kinnoull and Monereiffe Hills,
took it at Forest Lodge, Glen Tilt, at an elevation of 1,000 feet.

HENRY COATES - INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF PERTHSHIRE. 205

STENOGYRIDAE.

Cochlicopa lubrica (Mull.). ( = Zua lubrica, Miill.).

Brit., 153. Scot., 41.

Perth West. Perth Mid.

P.N.H. Mus.
Perth East.

Habitat. — This species is almost ubiquitous, being found in
both wet and dry places, under stones, and among decaying leaves
and moss, and the roots of grass, in woods, fields, hedges, gardens,
etc.

Local Distribution. — This is one of the commonest and most
widely distributed mollusks in our county. I have taken it in
all three vice-counties. The var. lubricoides was said by Dr.
Buchanan White to be not uncommon near Perth (S.N., II., 169).
It was also taken by the Rev. J. E. Somerville at Kenmore (Proc.,
R.P.S., X., 482). The var. hyalina was got by Mr. Ponsonby
near Loch Rannoch (R, Rimmer, L. and F.-W Shells of the Brit.
Isles, 1880, p. 182).

Azeca tridens (Pult.).

Brit., 52.

Perth West.

Scot., 1.

Wanted, P.N.H. Mus.

O.

O.

Habitat. — A very local species, found in damp woods and
hedgerows, among moss and dead leaves.

Local Distribution. — Perthshire boasts the only Scottish station
for this rare moflusk. This is a spot near Bridge of Allan, in Perth
West, where it was first found by Mr. Foulis in 1868, as recorded
by Mr. John Young, of the Hunterian Museum, Glasgow, in the
Proceedings of the Natural History Society of Glasgow, 1869,
vol. I., p. 240. It was then lost sight of for a number of years,
but was re-discovered by Mr. McLellan, of Stirling, iin April,
1896, in Wharry Glen, Bridge of Allan, which is possibly a slightly
different locality from Mr. Foulis’ original station. The specimens
were authenticated by the Recorder of the Conchological Society.
(See Trans., S.N.H.A.S., 1895-96, p. 140.) Then, in February,
1898, it was again got on a mossy bank near Bridge of Allan in
some numbers by Mr. W. Evans, who states that he hunted it up
independently (A.S.N.H., 1898, vol. VII., p. 186).

The specimens got by Mr. Foulis in 1868 were said to belong
to the variety nouletiana. Of the specimens got by Mr. McLellan
in 1896, one was found to belong to the variety crystallina.

The Scottish record of Azeca tridens was inadvertantly omitted
from W. D. Roebuck’s Census of June, 1921. This omission was
rectified by Prof. A. E. Boycott, the Recorder of the Conchological
Society, in the Journal of Conchology, vol, XVI., p. 274.

206 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

PUPIDAE.

Pupa umbilicata, Drap. ( = P. cylindracea, Da Costa.)

Brit., 151. Scot., 40. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This little mollusk is just about as widely distributed
and as common as Cochlicopa lubrica, and is found in similar
situations. It is especially fond of hiding" in crevices of rocks,
among the moss on old walls, and under the bark of trees.

Local Distribution. — This is the most abundant of the Pupidae
in the county. I have taken it in all three vice-counties. The
var. albina, which has a whitish shell, was found by Mr. McDougall
on the front of Abbey Craig, Bridge of Allan, in 1894 (Trans.,
S.N.H.A.S., 1894-95, p. 26). The var. edentula, I took on
Kinnoull Hill in 1880.

[The late Dr. Buchanan White informed me that he had taken
P. marginata, Drap. ( = P. muscorum, Linne) on Kinnoull Hill,
in Perth East (Proc. , P.S.N.S., 1881-86, p. 75); but as the
specimens do not seem to have been preserved I have not included
it in the present list.]

Pupa anglica, Ferussac. ( = P. ringens, Jeffreys.)

Brit., 78. Scot., 21. Wanted, P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. O.

Habitat. — This species is always found in damp situations,,
frequently by the side of streams, or in marshes. It lives under
stones and among moss and dead leaves. It is by no means
common, although fairly widely distributed.

Local Distribution. — This rare and local Pupa was got by Mr.
W. Evans on Drummond Hill, near Kenmore, Perth Mid., in
May, 1892 (A.S.N.H., I., 237). It has also been recorded from
Perth West, where it was got by Mr. W. Evans at Achtoo, near
Balquhidder, in September, 1902 (Census Books). It has not
yet been got in Perth East.

Vertigo antivertigo (Drap.).

Brit. 89. Scot., 12. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. O. Perth East.

Habitat. — This is another marsh-loving species It is
restricted in its distribution, and is by no means common. It
may sometimes be found on water flags and other aquatic plants,
in marshes and by the side of streams.

Local Distribution. — This rather rare shell was first taken by
Dr. Buchanan White in Quarry Mill Den in 1870 (Proc.,
P.S.N.S., 1869-70, p. 77). Ten years later I found it still
flourishing in the same locality, and in the following year I took
it on Kinnoull Hill. Then, in April, 1896, Mr. W. Evans found

HENRY COATES - INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF PERTHSHIRE. 207

a good many iin the Pass of Aberfoyle, Perth West (A.S.N.H.,
1898, VII., 185). This last discovery was not recorded in
Roebuck’s Census of June, 1921, but Prof. Boycott, F.R.S., the
Recorder of the Conchological Society writes to me under date
February, 17, 1922, that the record is presumably correct. Mr.
Evans informs me, however, that the specimens were verified tv
Mr. J. W. Taylor at the time.

V. sub striata (Jeffreys).

Brit., 71. Scot., 18. Wanted, P.N.H. Mus.

Perth We sit. Perth Mid. O.

Habitat. — This species also frequents moist places, under
stones, among decaying leaves and ferns, and at the roots of grass
and rushes. It is met with in Highland glens., where it may some¬
times be captured by sweeping the rank herbage with a butterfly
net.

Local Distribution. — This rather scarce species is recorded from
two localities in Perth West — in April, 1892, it was found on the
banks of the Keltic, near Callander, by Mr. W. Evans (A.S.N.H.,
II., 166) and also at Aberfoyle; and in 1894 it was got by Mr. G.
McDougall on Abbey Craig, Bridge of Allan (Trans., S.N.H.A.S.,
1894-95, P- 26). In Perth Mid. it was taken by Mr. R. Standen
on Birnam Hill, in 1886. In 1869 it was recorded by Dr. Buchanan
White from “ Near Perth ” (Jeffreys, Brit. Con., vol. V.
Supplement, 1869, p. 160), but he does not state on which side of
the river he found it. There is, therefore, no definite record for
Perth East. I have not taken this species myself.

V. pygmcea Drap.).

Brit., 125. Scot., 27. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This small species frequents moist or dry places
indifferently. It is found under stones and logs of wood, and at
the roots of grass, sometimes in dry and elevated situations on
hillsides.

Local Distribution. — This very small shell has been detected in
all three divisions of the county, but it is by no means common.
In Perth West it was taken on the front of Abbey Craig, Bridge
of Allan, in 1894, by Mr. G. McDougall (A.S.N. H., 1895, vol.
IV., p. 150) ; and by Mr. W. Evans at Aberfoyle in 1896. In
Perth Mid. it was taken in Glen Turret, near Crieff, iin April, 1903,
by the Rev. R. Godfrey (Census Books). In Perth East it was
found by Mr. W. Evans on grass by the side of Loch Moraig,
near Fenderbridge, at the foot of Glen Tilt, in 1899 (A.S.N.H.,
vol. VIII., p. 1 17).

In 1880 I took the var. pallida in Quarry Mill Den, in Perth
East. This variety was also taken by the Rev. R. Godfrey in
Glen Turret.

208 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

V. pus-ilia , (Mull.).

Brit., 27. Scot., 4. Wanted, P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. O. O.

Habitat. — This species is rare, and local in its distribution.
It lives among- damp moss and dead leaves, on old walls and
banks, and under stones.

Local Distribution. — This rare little shell was found by the late
Mr. McDoug-all in two localities near Bridge of Allan, Perth West,
in 1894, the one being on the front of Abbey Craig, and the other
at the foot of the hill west of Blairlogie (A.S.N.H., 1895, vol.
IV., p. 150). These are, so far as I am aware, the only places
where it has been detected in Perthshire. The only other counties
in Scotland where it has been found are Dumfries, Kirkcudbright
and Ayr.

Sphyradium edentulum (Drap.). ( =V ertigo edentula, Drap.)

Brit., 1 15. Scot., 32. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This species is widely distributed over the British
Isles, and is not uncommon. It is found both in wild and
cultivated places, under stones, among moss and decaying fronds
of ferns, such as the Male Fern. It is also found in woods, on
the trunks of trees.

Local Distribution. — This is the commonest of the Vertigo
group, and is found in all districts of the county, both Highland
and Lowland. I have taken it in Birnam Glen, Perth Mid., and
on Kinnoull Hill, in Perth East. In Perth West it has been
recorded from several localities, around Callander and Bridge of
Allan (A.S.N.H., I., 236; II., 167; III., 156).

I have taken the var. columella in Quarry Mill Den, Perth East.

1

S. minutissimum (Hartmann). ( = Vertigo minutissima, Hart.)

Brit., 11. Scot., 3. P.N.H. Mus.

O. O. Perth East.

Habitat. — This is one of the rarest of the Pupidae, as well as the
smallest. It has only been recorded from seven stations in Eng¬
land, three in Scotland, and one in Ireland. It is found under
stones in shady places on hillsides.

Local Distribution. — This very rare mollusk is now recorded
as a Perthshire species for the first time. In August, 1910, Mr.
Fred. Smith, Jun., found one specimen on Kinnoull Hill, in Perth
East, but, for some reason or other, the discovery was omitted
to be reported either to the Perthshire Society of Natural Science
or the Conchological Society, and thus it was not recorded in any
of the journals. Probably the reason was that Mr. Smith left
Perth about that time, to take up his residence in London, The

HENRY COATES - INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF PERTHSHIRE. 2 09

specimen has recently been authenticated by the Recorder and
Referees of the Conchological Society, and is now in the Perthshire
Natural History Museum.

The only other stations in Scotland from which S. minutissimum
has been recorded are Arthur’s Seat, Edinburgh (v.-c. 83),' and
North Berwick Law, Haddingtonshire (v.-c. 82). [J.C., 1889,

vol. VI., p. 5.]

CLAUSILIIDAE.

Balea perversa (Linne).

Brit., 129. Scot., 32. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This pretty reversed spiral shell is widely distributed,
but not very abundant. It is found in comparatively dry places,
on mossy rocks and old walls, on the trunks of trees, and amongst
loose stones. In dry weather it shelters under the loose bark of
trees, or in crevices of the lichen-covered rocks and walls.

Local Distribution. — This shell occurs in several localities in
each of the divisions of the county. I have taken it on Kinnoull
Hill and at Stobhall, in Perth East, and at Bridge of Allan, in
Perth West. In Perth Mid., it was taken at Aberfeldy by Mr.
James Leslie.

The late Dr. Buchanan White said that he found the Perth¬
shire specimens of B. perversa, which he collected at Dunkeld, in
Perth East, to be rather larger than average English specimens
(J. G. Jeffreys, Brit. Con., vol. V., Supplement, 1869, p. 161).

Clausilia laminata (Mont.)

Brit., 61. Scot., 3. P.N.H. Mus.

O. O. Perth East.

Habitat. — This species, which is very restricted in its distri¬
bution, is chiefly confined to woods, especially of beech, where it
is found both on and under the bark of trees. It is also found on
mossy rocks.

Local Distribution. — This very handsome Clausilia was first
discovered on the face of Kinnoull Hill by Dr. Buchanan White
in 1869 (Jeffreys, Brit. Con., vol. V., Suppt., 1869, p. 161). In
his List of Scot. L. and F.W. Mollusca, published in the Scot.
Nat. in 1873 (vol. II., p. 169), Dr. White describes the habitat
thus — “ Among ivy on a shaded rock near Perth, where I dis¬
covered it some years ago.” In October, 1880, Dr. White and I
again visited the spot, and found the small colony was still
flourishing. We found them living among the debris of the screes
at the foot of the perpendicular cliffs, where the volcanic soil is
kept moist and shaded by . the fairly thick growth of trees. In
August, 1920, the spot was again visited by Mr. E. Crapper, who
found that they were still fairly abundant, especially under the

210 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

decaying- bark of fallen tree trunks, and amongst dead leaves, twigs,
and other rubbish. It is very satisfactory to know that this little
detached colony of a species once thought to be confined to the
southern half of the kingdom is not dying out.

For many years after 1869, Kinnoull Hill was the only known
Scottish station for this species, but in April, 1901, it was dis¬
covered by Mr. W. Evans near Oakley, in Fifeshire, so that it
is recorded in Roebuck’s Census of June, 1921, from Fife and
Kinross, v.-c. 85 (see A.S.N.H., 1901, p. 183). It has also been
found at Muchalls, in Kincardineshire, Xo. 91, by Mr. N. G. Hadden
(recorded in Census Books, July, 1910).

C. bidentata (Strom.). ( = C. rugosa, Drap., =C. perversa Pult.)

Brit., 146. Scot., 36. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This in one of our commonest and most widely
distributed species. It is found in all sorts of situations — on both
wTild and cultivated land, in crevices of walls and rocks, on the
bark of trees, under stones, among moss, and at the roots of grass.

Local Distribution. — -This pretty spindle-shaped shell is abund¬
ant in all parts of the county, and ranges to considerable elevations.
Dr. Buchanan White found it on Ben Lawers at an altitude of
2,400 feet (S.N., II., 169). Mr. Frank F. Laidlaw found it on the
same mountain, in company wTith Helix arbustorum, at an elevation
of about 3,000 feet (J.C., XII., 129, “ Shells at High Altitudes in
Scotland. ’ ’)

This shell varies considerably, both in size and shape. I have
taken the varieties tumidula and everetti in more than one locality
both in the Lowland and Highland districts. The var. gracilior
was taken by Mr. J. Ray Hardy at the head of Loch Tummel, in
Perth Mid. (Proc., R.P.S., X., 480).

SUCCINEIDAE.

Succinea putris (Linne).

Brit., 136. Scot., 29. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This mollusk, like the next, is almost amphibious in
its habits, although it is seldom found actually under water. It
lives in marshy places, by the sides of ditches, and along the
margins of streams. It may frequently be found on the leaves of
water plants, or crawling over the wet mud.

Local Distribution. — This species is fairly common in wet places
both in Perth East and Perth Mid. In Perth West, it was taken
by Mr. W. Evans at Dollar, in April, 1897, but this was omitted
to be recorded in the Census of June, 1921.

Mr. Fred. Smith, Jun., took the var. subglobosa at Friarton^
near Perth, Perth Mid., in July, 1908.

HENRY COATES - INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF PERTHSHIRE.

21 I

S. elegans, Risso.
Brit. 123.

Scot., 19.

Wanted, P.N.H. Mus.

Perth East.

Perth West.

O.

Habitat. — This species is found in the same situations as the
last. Indeed, they are frequently met with in company with each
other.

Local Distribution. — This rather rare mollusk has been found
at two localities in Perth East, and two in Perth West, but it has
not yet been recorded from Perth Mid. In Perth East, Mr. Evans
took it at Loch Clunie (Proc., R.P.S., X., 451) ; and also in the
neighbourhood of Fenderbridge, near the foot of Glen Tilt, in
September, 1898 (A.S.N.H., VIII., 117). In Perth West, Mr.
Evans found it at Callander, in May, 1894 (id., IV., 150); and
Mr. McDougall got it along the edges of streams in Cornton, near
Bridge of Allan (Trans., S.N.H.A.S., 1894-95, P* 26).

Succinea oblonga, Drap.

Brit., 22.
Perth West.

P.N.H. Mus.

O.

Scot., 3.

O.

Habitat. — This very rare species is almost entirely confined
to situations near the sea, where it is found on plants in sandy
places, and sometimes in marshes.

Local Distribution. — -This is one of the rarest of our Perthshire
mollusks, being confined to one locality in the western division.
It was found by Mr. (now Dr.) R. Kidston, in 1893, near Thornhill,
at a spot two or three miles north of the River Forth. (Trans.,
S.N.H.A.S., 1895-96, p. 140; recorded by Mr. G. McDougall.
See also A.S.N.H. 1894, vol. III., p. 155.) It was also found
by Mr. W. Evans, in 1914, on the north bank of the Forth opposite
Craigforth, above Stirling, which is not very far from Dr. Kidston’ s
original locality. (S.N., 1914, p. 120).

Amongst the specimens which Dr. Kidston found was a sinistral
example, which was exhibited at a meeting of the Conchologieal
Society at Leeds in February, 1894 (J.C., VII., 367). Mr. j. W.
Taylor, commenting on this specimen in the same number of the
Journal (p. 367), says that it is new to science, and names it
S. oblonga m. sinistrosum. He says it was picked out by him
from amongst a few typical forms which had been sent to him by
Mr. McLellan. These specimens, he says, were found “in an
old road-side quarry in South Perthshire during the autumn of
1893, by a conchologieal friend of Mr. McLellan’s. ’ ’

It is difficult to account for the presence of these two isolated
colonies of a more or less maritime species in a position now so
far removed from the sea coast, unless, indeed, they are survivals
from the comparatively recent geological period when the Valley
of the Forth was an arm of the sea. This explanation may

2 12 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

account also for the presence of another maritime species, Helix
virgata, at Kincardine-on-Forth, a little further down the river.

The only other Scottish stations for S', oblonga are in Ayrshire
(v.-c. 75) and Linlithgowshire (v.-c. 84).

AURICULIDAE.

Carycliium minimum, Mull.

Brit., 141. Scot., 34. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This very pretty little shell is almost ubiquitous
throughout the British Isles. It is found under stones and logs
of wood and among wet moss and dead leaves, in moist woods
and other damp and shady places.

Local Distribution. — This little mollusk is found in suitable
situations in all parts of the county, both Highland and Lowland.

ANCYLIDAE.

Ancylus fluviatilis, Mull.

Brit., 137. Scot., 37. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — Abundant on stones, rocks, wooden piles, etc., in
shallow parts of quickly flowing streams and rivers. Sometimes
found adhering to the shells of freshwater mussels.

Local Distribution. — This, the common freshwater limpet, is
found in running water in all parts of the county, both Highland
and Lowland.

A. lacustris (Linne). ( = A. oblongus, Lightfoot).

Brit., 86. Scot., 11. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This rather local freshwater limpet inhabits ponds,
lakes, canals, sluggish streams and rivers, where it is found
adhering to the under sides of the leaves and the stems of water
lilies, and other aquatic plants.

Local Distribution. — This species is found in several localities
throughout the county, but is by no means common. I have
taken it in Dupplin Loch, in the Deadwaters of the Earn, near
Forgandenny, and in the Tay by the Woody Island, above Perth.
In Perth West, Mrs. Carphin found it at Bridge of Allan. The
var. albida is not uncommon. Indeed, Dr. Buchanan White
went so far as to say that all the Perthshire specimens appeared
to belong to this variety (S.N., 1883, vol. II., p. 208), but with
this I can hardly agree.

2 13

HENRY COATES - INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF PERTHSHIRE.

LIMN^IDAE.

Limncea peregra (Mull.).

Brit., 153. Scot., 41. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This species, which is the commonest of the fresh¬
water snails, is ubiquitous, being found in every vice-county of the
United Kingdom, and over the whole of the Eastern Hemisphere.
It is found also at all elevations. It inhabits both stagnant and
running water, in ponds, ditches, marshes, and sluggish streams.

Local Distribution. — This very common and very variable
species occurs everywhere throughout the county. It was taken
in a tarn at an elevation of 1,500 feet on Ben-y-Vrackie, by Mr.
T. M. McGregor, F.E.S., in July, 1898. In August 1909, Mr.
Jas. Leslie found it on Farragon, at an elevation of 2,000 feet.

The following varieties have been recorded from the county : —
Var. decollata, in a cold spring at Glenalmond, Perth Mid., by
Dr. Buchanan White (S.N., 1873, v°l* H-, p* 207 ).

Var. lacustris, in the River Tay, at Perth (Perth Mid. and
East), by Mr. A. K. Lawson (J.C., XVI., 269) ; Loch Clunie,
Perth East, by Mr. W. Evans (Proc., R.P.S. X., 490) ; North Inch
Pond, Perth, Perth Mid;, by Mr. Fred Smith, jun. ; and Lake of
Mentieth, Perth West, by Mr. G. McDougall (A.S.N.H., IV.,

I5°)-

Var. oblonga, Muir of Durdie, near Perth, Perth East, by Mr.
F. Smith, jun., August, 1908.

Var. ovata, Forgandenny, Perth Mid., and Pitlochry, Perth
East, in 1880, by IT. Coates; and Loch Dochart, Perth Mid., by
Mr. A. Somerville (Proc., R.P.S., X., 490).

Var. sue cine cei or mis , Forgandenny, Perth Mid., 1880, by H.
Coates.

Var. albinos , Lake of Menteith, Perth West, by Mr. G.
McDougall (A.S.N.H., IV., 150).

L. burnetti, Aid. ( = L. peregra [Mull.], var. burnetti [Aid.].)

Brit., 5. Scot., 2. P.N.H. Mus.

O. O. Perth East.

Habitat. — This very rare and local species is found in mountain
lakes or tarns.

Local Distribution. — This species was taken by Dr. Buchanan
White in the Loch of the Lowes, Perth East, in 1882. The
specimen was authenticated by the Referees of the Conchological
Society, and is now in the Perthshire Natural History Museum.

The only other Scottish station for L. burnetti is Loch Skene,
in Dumfries-shire (v.-c. 72), where it has been known for many
years. Mr. E. Crapper visited the loch as recently as September, .
1921, and found the colony still flourishing.

214 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

L. palustris (Mull.).

Brit., 127. Scot., 21. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — Found in shallow, muddy ponds, and sluggish
streams, and along the margins of ditches.

Local Distribution. — This species is widely distributed in the
county, but not very common. Dr. Buchanan White found the
var. elongata near Perth, and the var. decollation near Dunkeld,
in 1892.

L. truncatula (Mull.)

Brit., 145. Scot., 37. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This small species is found in muddy ponds and
ditches, and in marshes and slow running streams. Dr. Buchanan
White said that he frequently found it adhering to stones and
aquatic plants out of the water. It is also found on rocks kept
moist by the spray from waterfalls. It reaches considerable
elevations.

Local Distribution. — This small freshwater snail is widely
distributed and abundant in the county. It may be found adhering
to the stones in streams and ditches in most places.

L. glabra (Miill.)

Brit., 34. Scot., 4. P.N.H. Mus.

[Perth West.] O. Perth East.

Habitat. — This very scarce and local species is found on the
banks of ponds, ditches, shallow pools, and marshes.

Local Distribution. — This rare mollusk was first found in
Perthshire in October, 1870, by the late Dr. Buchanan White, in
some small marshy pools on the Muir of Durdie, about 3 miles

E. N.E. of Perth Bridge, in Perth East (S.N., I., 26). These pools
contained a thick growth of grasses, rushes, Sphagnum and
Potamogeton. In November, 1881, I visited the pools, and found
the colony still flourishing, but in November, 1917, when I visited
the spot again, there was not a trace of them to be seen. It is
possible, however, that they were in hiding amongst the roots of
the water plants.

Most of the specimens got by Dr. Buchanan White had the
three apical segments eroded, and to this form he gave the name
decollata, B.W. (See Dr. White’s “ List of the Scottish L. and

F. -W. Moll.,” S.N. 1873, vol. II., p. 208; also Limncea glabra
as a Scottish Mollusk,” by W. Denison Roebuck, Scot. Nat.,
igi8, p.113.)

In the paper referred to above, Mr. Roebuck mentioned that
in April, 1896, Mr. W. Evans had found a single immature speci¬
men of L. glabra in a pool on the north side of Duchray Water,

HENRY COATES - INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF PERTHSHIRE. 215

near Aberfoyle, in Perth West. As there seems, however, to have
been some doubt regarding1 the authentication of the specimen,
although it was confirmed by Mr. J. W. Taylor, I have retained
the record, but only within square brackets. This record for
Perth West was not included in Roebuck’s Census of June, 1921.

PLANORBIDAE.

Planorbis albus, Mull.

Brit., 128. Scot., 24. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This widely distributed Planorbis is found on water
plants in weedy pools and slow-running streams.

Local Distribution. — This species is found abundantly in all
parts of the county. I have taken it in all three vice-counties.

P. glaber , Jeff. ( = P. parvus, Say.)

Brit., 52. Scot., 13. Wanted, P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. O. O.

Habitat. — This rare and local species is found on water plants
in ponds and marshes.

Local Distribution. — This rare little mollusk has only been
recorded from the Western division of the county, where it was
found by Mr. G. McDougall in the Lake of Menteith (A.S.N.H.,
IV., 150). I have never come across it myself.

P. nautileus (Linne).

Brit., 1 13. Scot., 25. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This species is found in similar positions to P.
albus, but it is by no means so common, nor so widely distributed.

Local Distribution. — This beautiful little shell has been taken
in all three divisions of the county. It had not been recorded
from Perth Mid. in Roebuck’s Census of June, 1921, but I recently
sent to Prof. Boycott, the Recorder of the Conchological Society,
specimens which I took in Dupplin Loch in May, 1915, and these
have now been confirmed by the Referees as P. nautileus, var.
Icevigata. The var. crista (or imbricata) appears to be nearly,
if not quite, as common as the type. It was got by the late
Mrs. Carphin at Bridge of Allan, Perth West (A.S.N.H., II., 166),
and bv Dr. Buchanan White in Loch Marlee, Perth East.

P. leucostoma, Millet. ( = P. spirorbis [Linne].)

Brit., 125. Scot., 20. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. O. Perth East.

R

216 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

Habitat. — Found on water plants in shallow stagnant pools
and sluggish streams. It is even found in pools which may be
dried up in summer.

Local Distribution. — This pretty little flat-coiled shell was first
taken in a pond at Errol, Perth East, by Dr. Buchanan White,
about 1872. It was unfortunately wrongly identified as P. vortex,
and as such was recorded in my “ Notes on the Mollusca of
Perthshire,” published in the Proceedings of the Perth. Soc. Nat.
Sc., for 1881-86, p. 72. Mr. Fred. Smith, Jun., revisited the pond
at Errol in June, 1908, and found the colony still flourishing there
at that date.

In Perth West it was taken in a ditch at Cornton, near Bridge
of Allan, by Mr. G. McDougall (A.S.N.H., IV., 150), and also at
Dollar, in April, 1897, by Mr. W. Evans. It is said to have been
taken alsto at Dunning, in Perth Mid. , but as I can find no con¬
firmation of this record, I have not included it in the present list.

Amongst the Errol specimens was a curiously malformed or
semi-scaliform shell, a portion of the last whorl being turned up at
right angles to the plane of the rest of the shell (Proc., P.S.N.S.,
1881-86, p. 195). Malformations of this kind are not uncommon
with P. leucostoma.

Bathy omphalus contortus (Linne). ( = Planorbis contortus

[Linne] .)

P.N.H. Mus.
Perth East.

Brit., 120. Scot., 28.

Perth West. Perth Mid.

Habitat. — This species is as common and as widely distributed
as P. albus, and is found in similar situations.

Local Distribution. — Found in streams, ponds and ditches in
every part of the county.

Hippeutis fontanus (Lightfoot). ( = Planorbis nitidus, Mull.)

P.N.H. Mus.
O.

Brit., 97. Scot., 13.

Perth West. Perth Mid.

Habitat. — This very local species is found on aquatic plants
in ditches, marshes and streams. It is generally found amongst
the mud at the bottom of the water.

Local Distribution. — This rather rare little mollusk was got
by Mr. W. Evans at the foot of Loch Ard, in Perth West, in July,
1905 (A.S.N.H., XIV., 247). In May, 1915, I got it in Dupplin
Loch, in company with P. nautileus (Proc., P.S.NS., vol. VI.,
p. CI.). It was also got by Dr. Buchanan White, in 1869, in
the Lower Moncreiffe Pond. These two last localities are both ir
Perth Mid. It has not yet recorded form Perth East.

HENRY COATES - INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF PERTHSHIRE. 217

PHYSIDAE.

Physa fontinalis (Linne).

Brit., 1 19. Scot., 19. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — On water lilies and other aquatic plants in weedy
ponds, ditches and streams.

Local Distribution. — This beautiful gdossy little shell is fairly
common throughout the county. I have taken it in all the three
vice-counties. Dr. Buchanan White said that the var. curta was
the only form1 that occurred in Perthshire. He found it at an
elevation of at least 1,000 feet (S.N., II., 207).

Aplexa hypnorum (Linne). ( = Physa hypnorum [Linne].)

Brit., 97. Scot., 8. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This rather local species, although very restricted
in its range, has been recorded from all the three divisions of the
county. In Perth West it was found in at ditch at Cornton, near
Bridge of Allan, by Mr. G. McDougall (A.S.N.H., IV., 150). In
May, 1895, Mr. T. M. McGregor, F.E.S., found it in a small pond
at the mouth of the Almond, in Perth Mid. In July, 1908, Mr.
Fred. Smith, Jun., visited the same pond, and found the colony
still holding its ground. In Perth East it was found at Errol, in
1869, by Mr. J. MacFarlane, now the only surviving founder of
the Perthshire Society of Natural Science (Proc., P.S.NS., 1869-70,
p. 75). I have never taken it myself.

PALUDESTRINIDAE.

Paludestrina jenkinsi (Smith) \_Paludestrina = Hydrobia.~\

Brit., 69. Scot., 2. P.N.H. Mus.

O. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This little mollusk, which is supposed to have been
introduced into this country with timber from the Baltic, was at
first confined to the brackish water at the mouths of rivers.
Within recent years, however, it has spread rapidly to the fresh¬
water upper reaches of these rivers, and also into their tributary
streams, and canals. It is found1 chiefly on stones at the edges of
the stream.

Local Distribution. — This interesting species was first detected
in Perthshire— and, indeed, in Scotland — by Mr. William Barclay,
of Perth, while botanising by the side of the River Tay, at a point
a little above Elcho, on the South or right bank of the river, in
Perth Mid. The date was in August, 1906, and the mollusks were
found adhering to stones near the edge of the river, at a point about
two miles below Perth Harbour, where the stream is under the
influence of the tides. (See Proc., P.S.N.S., vol. V. p. LXIX.)

218 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

In April, 1921, Mr. E. Crapper discovered another station for
this species, in a small stream which flows into the Tay near
Kinfauns, on the North or left bank of the river and therefore in
Perth East. A little later, in July of the same year, he found it in
yet another locality, further down the river, but still on the left
bank. This was in Huntly Burn, near Longforgan. In these
two last cases, the mollusks were confined to the portions of the
burns which are under the influence of the tides. (See “ Paludestrina
jenkinsi in Scotland,” by E. Crapper, Jl. of Con., 1922, XVI.,
275 ; “Census Authentications,” by W. D. Roebuck, id., 1920,
XV., 101 ; ff Paludestrina jenkinsi in Scotland,” by W. D.
Roebuck, Scot. Nat., 1918, p. 142 ; and “ Additions to the Census
of June, 1921,” by Prof. A. E. Boycott, Jl. of Con., 1922, XVI.,

274-)

In February, 1922, specimens of P. jenkinsi were found adhering
to the bill of a Scaup Duck which was feeding just below the Old
Harbour at Perth (Perth Mid.). The specimens, which were quite
fresh, were removed from the bill by Mr. John Ritchie, Jun.,
Curator of the Perthshire Natural History Museum. This incident
has an interesting bearing on some of the problems connected with
the Dispersal of the Mollusca.

VALVATIDAE.

Valvata piscinalis (Mull.).

Brit., 121. Scot., 20. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — Found adhering to submerged stones and sticks in
lakes, ponds, and sluggish streams, in most parts of the British

Isles.

Local Distribution. — This species is widely distributed and
common in standing waters and slow-running streams in most parts
of the county. I have taken it in several localities in Perth Mid.
and Perth East, both in the Highland and Lowland portions. In
Perth West it was got by Mr. G. McDougall in the Lake of
Menteith (A.S.N.H., IV., 150).

V. cristata, Mull.

Brit., 95. / Scot., 12. P.N.H. Mus.

O. Perth Mid. O.

Habitat. — Found in similar situations to the last, but much
more restricted in its distribution. Dr. Buchanan White said he
found it adhering to the roots of aquatic plants.

Local Distribution. — This rare and beautiful little shell was
not recorded from any of the three vice-counties of Perthshire in
Roebuck’s Census of June, 1921, but recently (Feb., 1922), in
overhauling the Conchological Collections of the Perthshire Natural
History Museum, I came across some specimens which had been

HENRY COATES - INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF PERTHSHIRE.

219

got at the Old Harbour, Perth (Perth Mid.), in July, 1908, by
Mr. Fred. Smith, Jun. I at once sent the specimens up to Prof.
Boycott, the Recorder of the Conchological Society, and he had
them confirmed by the Referees. It is difficult to know why this
discovery was not recorded at the time, but it must have been
overlooked.

DREISSENIDAE.

Dreissensia polymorpha (Pallas).

Brit., 38. Scot., 5. P.N.H. Mus.

O. Perth Mid. O.

Habitat. — This freshwater mussel is another species which
is supposed to have been introduced into this country with timber
from Russia, about 1824. It inhabits canals, slow-running rivers,
docks, water-pipes, etc. Its distribution is still restricted, but
it is firmly established in a number of localities, where large and
flourishing colonies are to be found.

Local Distribution. — This interesting species was discovered by
the late Mr. W. Herd at the Old Harbour, Perth (Perth Mid.),
about 1869. As a considerable trade was carried on between
Perth and the Baltic Ports in the early part of last century, it is
not difficult to understand how they came to find their way to the
Harbour. For nearly forty years they were lost sight of, but
in July, 1908, Mr. Fred. Smith, Jun., rediscovered them at the same
spot. The specimens are all of small size.

UNIONIDAE.

Margaritana margaritijera (Linne). ( = Unio margaritijer, Linne.)

Brit., 60. Scot., 21. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This species, the Freshwater Pearl Mussel, is chiefly
confined to the swiftly-flowing rivers of the more mountainous
districts of Great Britain. It seems to prefer soft-water streams,
rather than those of which the water is hard.

Local Distribution. — This handsome bivalve is one of the
notable mollusks of the county. Nowhere else in the British
Isles does it find a more congenial habitat than in the swift-flowing
mountain-fed streams of Perthshire. It is found throughout the
whole course of the River Tay, from Loch Tay to where the water
ceases to be fresh. It is also found in all the larger tributaries,
including the Tilt, the Garry, the Tummel, the Braan, the Lyon,
the Almond, the Earn, the Isla, the Farg, and possibly others.
It is also found in the River Forth and its tributaries, in Perth
West. It is not confined to these rivers, however, but is also
found in many of the larger Highland lochs, including Loch Tay,
Loch Rannoch, Loch Tummel, Loch Earn and Loch Katrine.

2 20 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

Mr. James Abernethy, of Coupar- Angus, who made a special
study of the habits and distribution of this species sends me the
following notes : —

Regarding the tributaries of the Tay in which M. margaritifera has been
found, I have taken it in the following : —

In the River Earn I have taken it from the confluence with the Tay up to
Highlandman Station. It was fairly abundant in 1906.

In the River Isla it occurs from the confluence with the Tay up to the
confluence of the Isla and the Dean. It was abundant in 1903.

In the Lunan Burn, a tributary of the Isla, it was present up to near Loch
Ordie, in 1907, but in small numbers.

In the River Tummel it is quite common, up to I.och Tummel. Above this
loch, up to Dunalastair, it is very abundant. From thence to Loch Rannoch
it is common. In the River Gauer it is abundant up to Loch Lydoch. In the
River Ba it is common up to Loch Ba. Above that it is very abundant. These
observations in the Tummel and its tributaries were made in 1908.

In the River Lyon it was abundant, in 1906, from the confluence with the
Tay up to Meggernie Castle, and is said to be found still further up.

In the River Dochart it was abundant, in 1906, from the mouth up to Luib.

With regard to the River Tay itself, I have found them from the mouth of the
Earn up to Loch Tay, very abundant in parts. There is one very noticeable
characteristic in all these various waters, and that is that in “ thin ” or shallow
waters, where pearl Ashers have been operating, the remaining specimens
are of much more vigorous growth than in the deeper and less accessible water,
where specimens are numerous. This extra healthy growth is also very
observable in all tidal waters. No doubt this is due to the relative abundance
or scarcity of food.*

With regard to the further incidence of this species in Perthshire, I have
found it in the following tributaries of the Forth : —

In the River Allan it is quite common, from Dunblane up to Greenloaning.

In the River Teith it occurs from the confluence with the Forth up to
Callander, and is abundant in parts.

In the River Balvaig it is very abundant from Loch Lubnaig to Loch Voile.

I have also taken it in the following lochs : — Loch Rannoch, Loch Tummel,
Loch Lubnaig, Loch Vennacher, and Loch Achray, as well as the water
connecting these last two lochs, also Loch Doine.

JAS. ABERNETHY.

The vars. roissyi and sinuata are not uncommon in the Tay
and the Earn.

What gives this species special importance is, of course, its
economic value as the source of the Pearl Fishing Industry in
Great Britain, which has been in existence from the time of the
Roman occupation, if not earlier. It still remains a source of
revenue to a number of fishers up and down the valleys of the
Tay and its tributaries, during the summer months, when the
waters are low. The mussels are not so abundant as they used
to be, but pearls are still occasionally got, valued at from one to
twenty pounds.

[References: — H. Coates, “ The Pearl Mussel of the Tay,”
Proc., P.S.N.S., 1881-86, pp. 11, 24. William Japp, “ The
Pearl Mussel in the Isla,” S.N., 1885, vol. VIII., pp. 62, 113.

* Mr. John Ritchie, of the Perth Museum, is of the opinion that the more
robust condition of the specimens in shallow portions of the river may also be
accounted for by the fact that the water in these portions would be more
thoroughly oxygenated, and fresher, than the water in deeper pools.

HENRY COATES - INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF PERTHSHIRE.

221

J. R. B. Masefield, M.A., “ The Economic Uses of some British
Mollusca,” J.C., 1898, IX., 153. J. Stewart, “ The Pearl Mussel
and its Fishery,” Proc., P.S.N.S., 1909, V. 17. All these Papers
contain references to the Pearl Fisheries of the Tay.]

Anodonta cygnea (Linne).

Brit., 86. Scot., 12. P.N.H. Mus.

O. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This mussel, unlike the last one, lives in sluggish
rivers, canals, lakes and ponds, where it lies amongst the mud at
the bottom.

Local Distribution. — This large bivalve, the “ Swan Mussel,”
was first recorded as a native of the county in November, 1869,
when a number of the shells were exhibited at a meeting of the
Perthshire Society of Natural Science by the late Mr. W. Herd,
who had got them in the River Earn, near the Railway Bridge
at Hilton, in company with M. margaritijera (Proc., P.S.N.S.,
1869-70, p. 15).

Four years later, in 1873, afterwards the Rev. Fred.

Smith found it in Dupplin Loch, which, like the previous locality,
is in Perth Mid. In May, 1915, I visited Dupplin Loch, and found
it still abundant there (Proc., P.S.N.S., vol. VI., p. CI.). In
1890 it was got by Dr. Buchanan White in Auchtertyre Loch, near
Crieff, in the same vice-county. In Perth East it has been got
in Scone Curling Pond by myself and others. It has not yet
been recorded from Perth West, although it seems reasonable to
expect that it will yet be found there. Indeed, the late Mr.
McDougall stated that it was reported to occur in the bed of the
River Forth, below the mouth of the Allan, although he had not
seen it there himself (Trans., S.N.H.A.S., 1897-98, p. 138).

The var. incrassata is not uncommon in the Earn, and also in
the “ Deadwaters ” of the same river. The var. ponderosa was
got by Mr. Fred. Smith, Jun., in Scone Curling Pond, in May, 1909.

CYRENIDAE.

Sphcerium corneum (Linne). ( — Cyclas cornea, L.)

Brit., 131. Scot., 25. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat.— This bivalve is found in nearly every part of the
British Isles, in both stagnant and flowing water. It inhabits
ponds, streams, ditches, canals and rivers, frequently at the roots
of wrater-lilies and other aquatic plants.

Local Distribution. — This species is widely distributed in the
county, especially in standing waters. I have taken it in the
Upper Moncreiffe Pond and North Inch Pond, both in Perth Mid.,
and in Balruddery Pond, in Perth East. In Perth West it was
got in the Lake of Menteith by Mr. G. McDougall (A.S.N.H.,
IV., 150).

22 2 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

S. lacustre (Mull.). ( = Cyclas lacustre, Mull.)

Brit., 93. Scot., 10. P.N.H. Mus.

O. Perth Mid. O.

Habitat. — This species is found in similar situations to the last,
but is much more local. It is frequently found in marshes, and in
ponds which dry up in summer.

Local Distribution. — This rather rare bivalve was found in the
Town’s Lade, opposite Tulloch, near Perth (Perth Mid.), by Mr.
Fred. Smith, Jun., in July, 1908 (Proc., P.S.N.S., vol. V., pp.
VII., X.). This is the only record for the county.

Pisidium amnicum (Mull.).

Brit., 95. Scot., 6. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. O.

Habitat. — In slow running rivers, gently flowing streams, lakes,
ponds and canals.

Local Distribution. — This rather rare bivalve, which is by far
the largest of the Pisidia , was first taken in Perthshire by the Rev.
Fred. Smith, who discovered it in the Town’s Lade at the North
Inch, Perth (Perth Mid.), in 1888. Just twenty years later, in
1908, it was again found a little further up the same Lade, opposite
Tulloch, by Mr. Fred. Smith, Jun., who was unaware .of the
previous record by his namesake, for practically the same locality !
(See Proc., P.S.N.S., vol. V., p. LIX.).

In Perth West it was found by the late Mrs. Carphin in the
River Allan, at Dunblane (Proc., R.P.S., X., 459). It has not
yet been recorded from Perth East.

P. casertanum (Poh).

Brit., 1 14. Scot., 16. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — Widely distributed, in gently-flowing streams and
ponds.

Local Distribution. — This is probably the most abundant of the
smaller Pisidia in the county, as well as throughout Britain. It
occurs in several localities around Perth, such as Craigie Mill
Dam, the Burghmuir, and the North Inch Pond, all in Perth Mid.
Mr. W. Evans has taken it at Fearnan, Loch Tay side, also in
Perth Mid. In Perth East, I found it in the marshy pools on the
Muir of Durdie, along writh Limncea glabra, and Mr. E. Crapper
took it in Huntly Burn, Longforgan. In Perth West, Mr. W.
Evans got it at Callander and Loch Lubnaig, in April, 1892.

The records for Perth West and Perth Mid. are entered in
Roebuck’s Census of June, 1921, but that for Perth East is new.

HENRY COATES - INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF PERTHSHIRE. 22^

P. hibernicum, Westld.

Brit., 69. Scot., 4. P.N.H. Mus.

O. Perth Mid. O.

Habitat. — Rare in Britain. Found in lakes, ponds, streams,

etc.

Local Distribution. — This rare Pisidium, which was formerly
supposed to be confined to Ireland, has been taken in two localities
in Perth Mid., not very far from each other. These are, Lower
Moncreiffe Pond, where Dr. Buchanan White got it in 1869 ; and
Dupplin Loch, where Mr. E. Crapper found it in October, 1921.
Although the specimens from the former locality were got more
than fifty years ago, they constitute a new record for the county,
as they have only now been authenticated by the Referees.

P. lilljeborgii, Clessin.

Brit., 27. Scot., 5. P.N.H. Mus.

O. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — A rare species, found especially in mountain lakes
and tarns.

Local Distribution. — This species has been taken in Perth Mid.
at Dupplin Loch, by Mr. Crapper and myself ; and also at the Old
Harbour, Perth, by Mr. Fred. Smith, Jun. In the same vice¬
county it was found by Dr. F. F. Laidlaw in Lochan a’ Chait, a
mountain tarn, at an elevation of 2,250 feet (B. B. Woodward,
Cat. of Brit. Pisidia, p. 1 1 5) . In Perth East, it was found in
Marlee and Fingask Lochs by Dr. Buchanan White in September,
1882, constituting a new record for the vice-county.

P. milium , Held. ( = P. roseum, Scholtz.)

Brit., 102. Scot., 8. P.N.H. Mus.

O. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — Fairly widely distributed, in ponds, ditches, marshes,
canals, and stagnant waters.

Local Distribution. — This species is by no means rare, but it
is now recorded for the county for the first time. In Perth Mid.,
I have taken it in the Upper Moncreiffe Pond, in Dupplin Loch,
and in the Deadwaters of the Earn at Forgandenny. It was also
taken at the Old Harbour, Perth, by Mr. Fred. Smith, Jun., and
at the Woody Island by Mr. Crapper. In Perth East, I have taken
it at the Muir of Durdie, and Dr. Buchanan White took it at
Fingask Loch.

P. nitidum, Jenyns.

Brit., no.

O.

Scot., 10.

Perth Mid.

P.N.H. Mus.

Perth East.

224 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

Habitat. — Fairly abundant in lakes, ponds, ditches, and
stagnant waters generally.

Local Distribution. — This is another new record for the county,
although not a rare shell. In Perth Mid., I have taken it at
Dupplin Loch, and Forgandenny, while Mr. Crapper has taken it
at the Woody Island. In Perth East, Dr. Buchanan White got
it in Fingask .Loch, and Mr. Crapper found it in Huntly Burn,
Longforgan.

P. obtusale , Jenyns.

Brit., 92. Scot., 8. P.N.H. Mus.

O. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — In shallow ponds, pools, swamps, and stagnant
waters generally.

Local Distribution. — This is another fairly common species,
but a new county record. In Perth Mid., I have taken it at
Laggan Hill Pond, near Crieff, and at Methven Bog ; while Mr.
T. M. McGregor took it in the small pond at the mouth of the
Almond. In East Perth, along with the Rev. F. Smith, I took
it at Corsiehill Quarry, and also at the Muir of Durdie, while
Dr. Buchanan White found it at Dunkeld.

P. personatum. Malm.

Brit., 90. Scot., 13. P.N.H. Mus.

Perth West. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — In ponds, pools, and stagnant waters.

Local Distribution. — This is a new record for Perth Mid., and
Perth East, but not for Perth West. In Perth Mid., it was taken
at the North Inch Pond, Perth, by the late Dr. Howard Bendall,
and at the Mill Dam, Craigie, by Dr. Buchanan White. In Perth
East, I took it at Corsiehill Quarry, and at the Muir of Durdie ;
while Dr. Buchanan White took it in Quarrymill Den. In Perth
West it was got by Mr. W. Evans at Callander and Loch Lubnaig,
in April, 1892.

It was also found by Mr. W. E. Evans in a tarn at an altitude
of about 3,000 feet on Cru-y-Ben, Tarmachans, near Killin, in
Perth Mid., in July, 1909 (S.N. 1918, p. 71), although the record
was not included in the Census of June, 1921.

P. pulchellum, Jenyns.

Brit., 51. Scot., 4. P.N.H. Mus.

O. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — A rather scarce species, found in ponds, sluggish
streams, canals, ditches, etc., either buried in the mud, or hidden
among the roots of aquatic plants.

HENRY COATES - INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF PERTHSHIRE. 225

Local Distribution. — This rare Pisidium has been taken at one
locality in Perth Mid., and one in Perth East, and constitutes a
new county record. In Perth Mid., it was got at the Old Harbour,
Perth, by Mr. Fred. Smith, Jun., in July, 1908. In Perth East,
it was got by Dr. Buchanan White in Fingask Loch, in Sept.,
1882.

P. subtmncatiim, Malm. ( = P. fontinale, Pfeiffer).

Brit., 1 14. Scot., 10. P.N.H. Mus.

O. Perth Mid. Perth East.

Habitat. — This is one of the commonest species of the genus.
It is found amongst the mud of ponds, stagnant pools, canals,
ditches, and sluggish streams.

A good way of collecting this and other small species inhabiting
similar situations is to gather a quantity of the mud, and take it
home in a tin canister, for examination at leisure in a shallow vessel
of water.

Local Distribution. — This is another new county record, but, lake
the last, it has not yet been recorded from Perth West. Strangely
enough, although it is a common species, it was not found amongst
any of the older lots, collected during the latter half of the last
century, which were recently sent to the Referees for authentication.
The question therefore arises — Is this a comparatively recent
introduction into the district?

There are only two records of this species for the county, and
these have both been obtained by Mr. E. Crapper within the past
year. In April, 1921, he found it at the Woody Island, near the
junction of the Almond and the Tay, in Perth Mid. ; and in July,
1921, he got it in Huntly Burn, Longforgan, in Perth East.

Another record, of somewhat doubtful value, has been made
more recently. Some specimens of this species were found
amongst the mollusks which were adhering to the bill of the Scaup
Duck caught at the bank of the River Tay below the Old Harbour,
Perth (Perth Mid.), in February, 1922, as already described under
Paludestrina jenkinsi (see p. 217). This incident of the Scaup’s
bill may possibly supply an answer to the question asked above re¬
garding the introduction of P. siibtruncatam into the district within
comparatively recent years.

1 1 1 . — Bibliography.

1853. Prof. Edward Forbes, F.R.S., and Sylvanus Hanley,

B.A., F.L.S.

A History of British Mollusca and their Shells. 4 vols.

Unio margaritijerus in Scotland. The Tay, the seat of a pearl
fishery, extending from Perth to Loch Tay. Vol. II., p. 152.
[This is the sole allusion to Perthshire.]

226 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

1866. Ralph Tate, F.G.S., F.A.S.L.

A Plain and Easy Account of the Land and Freshwater
Mollusks of Great Britain.

The Pearl Fisheries of the Tay, p. 30.

1868. John Dawson [of Perth.]

British Mollusks. Proc., Alloa Soc. of Nat. Sc. and
Arch., p. 43.

On the Life History and Habits of Snails.

1869. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, F.R.S., F.G.S.

British Conchology. Vol. V., Supplement. [Vol. I.>
published in 1862, contains no references to Perthshire.]

Zonites excavatus in Perthshire, F. Buchanan White [this should
have been Ross-shire, fide F.B.W.], p. 157, Helix rotundata
var. alba, in Perthshire, F.B.W., p. 159. Vertigo substriata at
Perth, F.B.W., p. 160. Balia perversa in Perthshire, F.B.W.,
specimens rather larger than English specimens, p. 161. Clausilia
laminata at Perth, F.B.W., p. 161.

1869. John Young, Hunterian Museum, Glasgow.

Azeca tridens, var. nouletiana, found near Bridge of
Allan. Proc., Nat. Hist. Soc. of Glasgow, vol. I., p. 240.

1869. W. Herd.

Anodonta cygnea , with var. incrassata, found in the River
Earn, along with Unio margaritifer, Proc., P.S.N.S.,
1869-70, p. 15.

1869. John Dawson.

Shells of the Genus Helix found in Perthshire. (11 species)
Proc., P.S.N.S., 1869-70, p. 15.

1870. F. Buchanan White.

Species [of Mollusca] added to the Local Lists during the
Session 1869-70. Proc., P.S.N.S, 1869-70, p. 75.

Physa hypnorum, Ancylus lacustris, with var. albida, Pupa
muscorum, Planorbis nautileus, P. nitidus, Pisidium nitidum
Anodonta cygnea, with var. incrassata ; and Helix nemoralis,
var. alpestris.

1870. J. McFarlane.

The Mollusca of the Ponds of the District. (17 species)-
Proc., P.S.N.S., 1869-70, p. 84.

HENRY COATES - INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF PERTHSHIRE. 22J

1870.

1870.

1870.

1871.

1873.

1875.

1878.

F. Buchanan White.

Mollusca got during an Excursion to Methven. Proc.,
P.S.N.S., 1869-70, p. 98.

Including the following species : — Zonites cellarius, Z. nitidulus ,
Z. crystallinus, Z. fuivus , Helix nemoralis , var. hortensis, H.
hispida, H. rotundata, Bulimus obscurus, Clausilia perversa,
Balea perversa, Planorbis albus, P. contortus, and Lymncea
peregra.

F. Buchanan White.

An Addition to the Perthshire JList of Land and Freshwater
Mollusca. Proc., P.S.N.S., 1869-70, p. 99.

Helix lamellata on Birnam Hill, and other species accompanying

it.

F. Buchanan White.

Report on Vertigo antivertigo and Helix aculeata found
in Quarrymill Den. Proc., P.S.N.S., 1869, p. 77.

F. Buchanan White.

Report on Limncea glabra got at Muir of Durdie, near
Perth. Scot. Nat., I., 26.

F. Buchanan White, M.D., F.L.S.

A List of the Scottish Land and Fresh-Water Mollusca,
with hints on Collecting. Scot. Nat., vol. II. ; pp. 163
and 205.

Perthshire references : — Limax marginatus on Ben Lawers, at
an elevation of 3,000 feet ; Zonites cellarius, vars. complanatus
and compacta ; Z. crystallinus ; Helix arbustorum, var. alpestris,
H. nemoralis, vars. minor and hortensis, H. hispida, var. albida,
H. fusca, H. pulchella, var. costata, H. rotundata, var. alba,
Cochlicopa lubrica, var. lubricoides , Azeca tridens, Clausilia
laminata, C. perversa on Ben Lawers at an altitude of 2,400
feet, C. perversa , vars. everetti and tumidula, Vertigo antivertigo ,
Planorbis nautileus , P. vortex [should have been spirorbis, H.C.],
Physa fontinalis, var. curta, P. hypnorum , Limncea peregra,
var. decollata, L. glabra , and var. decollata, Ancylus lacustris,
var, albida, Anodonta cygnea, var. incrassata, XJnio margaritifer,
vars. sinuata and roissyi.

Henry Coates.

Captures of Helicidae at Moulin, near Pitlochry,
Perthshire. - (17 species.) Scot. Nat., III., 160.

F. Buchanan White. M.D., F.L.S.

Glen Tilt : Its Fauna and Flora. (16 species of Mollusca.)
Scot. Nat., IV., 244.

2 28 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

1879.

1880.

1880.

1881.

1881.

1881.

1882.

J. W. Taylor.

Note on Cochlicopa tridens. Jl. of Con., II., 220.

Occurrence of var. nouletiana at Bridge of Allan noted.

John W. Taylor.

Additional Notes on Helix arbustorum. Jl. of Con.,
III., 302.

Occurrence of var. alpestris at Pitlochry, at an elevation of 500
to 600 feet, noted.

Richard Rimmer, F.L.S.

The Land and Freshwater Shells of the British Isles.

Perthshire References : — Pearl Fisheries in Perthshire, p. 16.
Unio margaritifer, vars., sinuata and roissyi, p. 16. Anodonta
cygnea, and var. incrassata, in the R. Earn, p. 17. Physa
fontinalis, var. curta, p. 53. Lymncea glabra; near Perth,
p. 67. Zonites nitidulus emitting a strong smell of garlic, p. 102.
Helix lamellata in wooded highland glens, at an elevation of
1,200 feet, p. hi. Helix rotundata, var. alba, p. 139. Clausilia
rugosa, vars. everetti and tumidula, at Perth, p. 173. C.
laminata, near Perth, p. 177. Cochlicopa tridens, near Bridge of
Allan, p. 179. C. lubrica, var. hyalina, near Loch Rannoch,
p. 182.

John W. Taylor.

Life Histories of British Helices. Jl. of Con., vol. III.,
pp. 241-259 and 302-305.

P. 247, Helix ( Arianta ) arbustorum. L., var. alpestris, Zeigl.
In Scotland it occurs but rarely, in several parts of Perthshire
and Aberdeenshire. Dr. Buchanan White found it abundantly
in Glen Tilt, but strictly confined to limestone. P. 258, H. Coates
found it on the Old Red Sandstone Series at elevations of 50
to 300 feet, and on the Highland Metamorphic Series at elevations
of 100 to 300 feet. P. 304, var. fusca, Fer. , on Ben More (Hey).

Henry Coates.

The Pearl Mussel (Unio margaritiferus ) of the Tay.
Proc., P.S.N.S., 1881-86, p. 11.

William Japp, Alyth.

Unio margaritiferus in the River Isla. Id., p. 24.

Henry Coates.

Notes on the Mollusca of Perthshire. Id., p. 72.

51 species recorded [Planorbis vortex should be P. spirorbis ].

HENRY COATES INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF PERTHSHIRE. 2 29

1882. A. H. Cooke, M.A., F.Z.S.

On the McAndrews Collection of British Shells. Jl. of
of Con., vol. III., pp. 340-390.

Description of Unio margaritifer, L., and Pearls, from the
River Tay.

1882. F. Buchanan White, M.D., F.L.S.

Freshwater Mollusca got in the Blairgowrie Lochs. Proc.,

P.S.N.S., 1881-86, p. 81.

Species enumerated — Limncea limosa, Physa fontinalis, Planorbis
albus, P. contortus, Valvata piscinalis, and Cyclas cornea.

1882. J. W. Taylor.

Additional Notes on Helix arbustorum. Jl. of Con., III.,
303-

Vars. alpestris and fusca in Perthshire, the former at an elevation
of 500 to 600 feet.

1883. J. W. Taylor and W. D. Roebuck.

The Present State of Knowledge of the Distribution of
Land and Freshwater Mollusca in Britain. Id., IV., 174.

The three Perthshire vice-counties all blank — no authenticated
records.

1883. F. Buchanan White.

Helix fusca in Kincardine Glen, and Physa fontinalis in
Loch Ordie. Proc., P.S.N.S., 1881-86, pp. 114 and 115.

1884. Henry Coates.

Helix lamellata at Craighall ; and H. aspersa, varieties of
H. nemoralisj and H. hispida, in Kingoodie Quarry,
Longforgan. Scot. Nat., VIII., 40.

1884. Henry Coates, F.R.P.S.

The Life History of a Garden Snail. Proc., P.S.N.S.,

1881-86, p. 140.

1884. Henry Coates.

Variations in Banding of Helix nemoralis. Id., p. 145.

1884. Henry Coates.

Preliminary Report on the Land and Freshwater Mollusca
of the East of Scotland. Report of the East of Scotland
Union of Naturalists’ Societies, 1884, P- 33-

23O TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

1885. Henry Coates.

Report on the Bibliography of the Land and Freshwater
Mollusca of the Counties of Aberdeen, Kincardine, Forfar,
Fife, Kinross and Perth. Report E.S.U.N.S., 1885,
p. 26. (Also Scot. Nat., VIII., 218.)

1885. Henry Coates.

Helix arbustorum, vars, alpestris and flavescens , and
Limax (Lehmannia) arborum in Glen Tilt. Proc.,
P.S.N.S., 1881-86, p. 215.

H. aspersa at Remony, Breadalbane. Id., p. 216.

Arion ater on Stuc a Chroin. Id., p. 217.

1885. Henry Coates.

Note on a Fractured and Mended Shell of Helix nemoralis,
and on a malformed (semi-scalariform) Shell of Planorbis
vortex. [Should be P. spirorbis .] Proc., P.S.N.S.,
1881-86, p. 192. (Also Scot. Nat., VIII., 90.)

1885. J. W. Taylor and W. Denison Roebuck.

Census of the Authentic Distribution of British Land and
Freshwater Mollusca. J.L. of Con., IV., pp. 319-336.

Authenticated records of 34 Perthshire species.

1885. Dr. Buchanan White.

Notice of Helix aspersa, H. nemoralis (several forms),
and H. hispida at Longforgan and Invergowrie. Scot.
Nat., VIII., 40. (Also Proc., P.S.N.S., 1881-86, p. 173.)

1885. William Japp, F.S.A.

Stray Notes on the Pearl Mussel. Id., pp. 62 and 113.
Special references to its occurrence in the River Isla.

1886. Henry Coates.

The Natural History of Kinnoull Hill, — VI., the Mollusca.
Proc., P.S.N.S., 1881-86, pp. 247 and 255.

3 7 species enumerated.

1890. William Denison Roebuck, F.L.S.

Census of Scottish Land and Freshwater Mollusca. Proc.,
R. Phys. Soc., X., pp. 437-503.

References to all the Perthshire Records, then known, embracing
60 species. Table showing distribution of species, pp. 500-503.

HENRY COATES INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF PERTHSHIRE. 23 1

1891.

1892.

1893.

1893.

1893.

1894.

1894.

s

F. Buchanan White, M.D., F.L.S.

Note on the Occurrence of Helix virgata at Kincardine-
on-Forth. Scot. Nat., XI., 126.

Reference to change of County Boundaries.

William Denison Roebuck, F.L.S.

Additions to the Authenticated Comital Census of the
Land and Freshwater Mollusca of Scotland. Ann. Scot.,
Nat. Hist., 1892, p. 235.

List of 34 new records for Perth West, and 29 for Perth Mid.

Gilbert McDougall.

Notes on the Mollusca of Perthshire South and
Clackmannan. Trans., Stirling- Nat. Hist, and Arch.
Soc., 1892-93, p. 49.

38 species enumerated.

William Denison Roebuck, F.L.S.

Additions to the Authenticated Comital Census of the
Land and Freshwater Mollusca of Scotland. Ann. Scot.
Nat. Hist., 1893, P* 164.

3 new records for Perth West ; 2 for Perth Mid. ; and 3 for
Perth East.

Henry Coates, F.R.S.E.

The Natural History of the Banks of the Tay : The
Mollusca. Trans., P.S.N.S., II., 60.

31 species enumerated.

William Denison Roebuck, F.L.S.

Additions to the Authenticated Comital Census of the
Land and Freshwater Mollusca of Scotland. Ann. Scot.
Nat. Hist., 1894, p. 153.

Four new records for Perth West, including Succinea oblonga
type and monst. sinistrorsum, and two new records for Perth
Mid.

Thomas Scott, F.L.S.

Valvata piscinalis in Loch Tay, Perthshire. Id., p. 116.

232 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

1895. William Denison Roebuck, F.L.S.

Additions to the Authenticated Comital Census of the
Land and Freshwater Mollusca of Scotland. Ann. Scot.
Nat. Hist., 1894, p. 149.

13 new records for Perth West, including Succinea elegans ; also
a list of 10 species from Killin, at the head of Loch Tay.
(Perth Mid.).

1895. Gilbert McDougall.

Second Note on the Conchology of Perth (South) and
Clackmannan. Stirling Nat. Hist, and Arch. Soc.,5
Trans., 1894-95, P- 23-

Records of 21 new species, making, with the 38 recorded in
1893, a total for the vice-county of 59 species.

1895. Gilbert McDougall, Stirling.

Notes on Mollusca collected in South Perthshire and
Clackmannan. Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., 1895, P- 255-

1896. Gilbert McDougall.

Third Report on the Land and Freshwater Shells of
Perth South and Clackmannan. Trans., Stirling Nat.
Hist, and Arch. Soc., 1895-96, p. 140.

Records of 12 additional species, including Helix virgata, Azeca
tridens, Succinea oblonga and Hyalinia glabra.

1896. Lionel Ernest Adams, B.A.

The Collector’s Manual of British Land and Freshwater
Shells. Second Edition.

Perthshire references : — Clausilia laminata at Perth, p. 108 ;
Azeca tridens, var. nouletiana, at Bridge of Allan, p. 109 ;
Valvata piscinalis, as far north as' Perth, p. 146 ; Unio
mar garitif er , Pearls found in the Tay, p. 149 ; Distribution
Tables, pp. 202-205, Perth West and Clackmannan, 58 species,
Perth Mid., 45 species, Perth East, 51 species.

1898. Gilbert McDougall.

Comparative Statement of the Land and Freshwater
Shells of the Vice-County of Stirling (collected by Mr.
Andrew McLellan), and the Vice-County of Perth (South)
and Clackmannan (collected by Mr. Gilbert McDougall).
Trans., Stirling Nat. Hist, and Arch. Soc., 1897-98, p.

T36-

Total records of 68 species and 19 varieties for Perth South,
as compared with 62 species and 11 varieties for Stirling.

HENRY COATES - INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF PERTHSHIRE. 233

1898.

1898.

1898.

1899.

1899.

1901.

Gilbert McDougall.

Land and Freshwater Shells of Perth (South) and Clack¬
mannan. Trans., Stirling Nat. Hist, and Arch. Soc.,
1897-98, p. 138.

Mr. McDougalls’ Fourth and Final Report, adding one new
record, and bringing up the total for the vice-county to 68
species and 19 varieties.

William Evans.

Records of Scottish Land and Freshwater Mollusca. Ann.
Scot. Nat. Hist., 1898, p. 185.

Vertigo antivertigo at Aberfoyle, and Succinea putris at Dollar,
April, 1897. Independent discovery of Azeca tridens on a mossy
bank near Bridge of Allan.

J. R. B. Masefield.

The Economic Uses of some British Mollusca. Jl. of
Con., IX., 153.

The Pearl Fishery of the Tay described.

William Evans.

Vertigo pygmcea and other Molluscs in “ Perth East.”
Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., 1899, p. 117.

V. pygmcea got by the side of Loch Moraig. 29 other species
recorded from the neighbourhood of Fenderbridge, near the foot
of Glen Tilt.

Thomas Scott, F.L.S.

The Invertebrate Fauna of the Inland Waters of Scotland,
— Report on Special Investigations. 17th Annual Report
of the Fishery Board for Scotland, Part III., p. 132.

Investigations carried on in connection with the Survey of the
Scottish Freshwater Lakes. Also Appendix, with Lists of all
species previously recorded, p. 185. In these lists the following
species are recorded from Loch Achray, in Perth West, — Pisidium
pusillum, Planorbis albus, P. contortus and Limncea peregra.

William Evans.

Clausilia larhinata and Helix virgata in the Forth Area.
Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., 1901, p. 183

Records of C. laminata from a ravine near Oakley, Fife, and
independent discovery of H. virgata , on an old ballast heap near
Kincardine-on-F orth.

234 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

1902. Lionel E. Adams, B.A.

The Census of the British Land and Freshwater Mollusca.
Jl. of Con. X., 217.

Also published separately, by Dulau & Co., London, in the same
year, by Authority of the Conchological Society of Great Britain
and Ireland.

Recording 58 species for Perth West, 45 for Perth Mid., and
49 for Perth East.

1904. W. Denison Roebuck.

Re-establishment of Limax tenellus as a British species.
Jl. of Con., XI., 106.

Record of the finding of L. tenellus, var, cerea, by Mr. Charles
McIntosh at Inver, near Dunkeld, in Perth Mid. [See also
Note by W. D. Roebuck in Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., 1904, p. 221 ;
and Note by Rev. G. A. Frank Knight, Proc., P.S.N.S., vol.
IV., p. LI.]

1904. William Evans.

Note on Limax tenellus (Mull), with exhibition of living
examples from the Forth area. Proc., R. Phys. Soc. ,
XVI., p. 22.

1905. William Evans.

Note on Planorbis fontanus (Light.) in South-West
Perthshire. Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., 1905, p. 247.

Found at the foot of Loch Ard, Perth West, in July, 1905.

1905=1906. Alex. M. Rodger.

Illustrated Hand-book to the Perthshire Natural History
Museum, and Brief Guide to the Animals, Plants and
Rocks of the County.

First Edition published 1905 ; Second Edition published 1906.
References to Perthshire Mollusca, p. 69.

1906. William Evans.

Note on Milax ( Amalia ) gagates , var. rava, in South-
West Perthshire. Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., 1906, p. 241.

Found in a garden at Callander, September, 1906.

HENRY COATES — INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF PERTHSHIRE. 235

1907. John W. Taylor.

Monograph of the Land and Freshwater Mollusca of the
British Isles. Vol. II., Testacellidae, Limacidae and
Arionidae. Perthshire References : —

Limax maximus, var. fasciata, in Perth East, p. 42 ; var. ctllaria,
sub-var. maculata, in Perth East, p. 45.

L. maximus in Perth West and Perth Mid., p. 50.

L. cinereo-niger in Perth West and Perth Mid., p. 60.

L. flavus in Perth West, p. 86.

L. arborum in Perth West, Perth Mid., and Perth East, p. 100.
Agriolimax Icevis in Perth West, Perth Mid., and Perth East,
p. 130.

Milax gagates in Perth West, p. 148.

Arion ater var. aterrima, in Perth West, p. 176.

.4. subfuscus, var. fuliginea, in Perth West, p. 199 ; var. cinereo-
fusca, in Perth Mid., p. 201.

A. subfuscus in Perth West, Perth Mid., and Perth East, p. 207
.4. hortensis in Perth West, Perth Mid., and Perth East, p. 224.
A. circumscriptus in Perth West, Perth Mid., and Perth East,
P- 237-

Testacella scutulum in Perth West, p. 263 [Appendix].

Limax maximus in Perth West, p. 264; var. fasciata in Perth
Mid., p. 266.

L. cinereo-niger in Perth Mid., p. 269; var. cinereo-niger, sub-
var. razoumowskii, in Perth West, p. 269.

L. tenellus, var. cerea, in Perth West and Perth Mid., p. 270.
Agriolimax Icevis in Perth Mid., p. 280.

Milax gagates , var. rava, in Perth West, p. 282.

Arion intermedius in Perth East, p. 291.

1908. Frank F. Laidlaw.

Shells at High Altitudes in Scotland. Jl. of Con., XII.,
192.

Records of three species on Ben Lawers at 3,000 to 3,800 feet.

1908. Alex. M. Rodger and William Barclay.

Note on Two Shells new to Perthshire. Proc., P.S.N.S.,
vol. V., pp. VII. and X.

Helix rufescens and Sphcerium lacustre, got by Mr. Fred. Smith,
Jun., and Mr. Wm. Wylie, Jun.

1908. Alex. M. Rodger.

Note on Hyalinia lucida, Drap., new to Perthshire. Id.,
p. XXI.

Got at Perth by Mr. Fred. Smith, Jun.

1908. Alex. M. Rodger.

Notes on New Records of Mollusca. Id., p. LIX.

Pisidium amnicum, Hyalinia lucida, and Helix aspersa, got by
Mr. Fred. Smith, Jun., and Mr. Jas. Leslie.

1909. J. Stewart.

The Pearl Mussel and its Fishery. Trans., P.S.N.S.,
V., 17.

Records of Unio margaritifer throughout the Tay Basin, in all
tributaries of sufficient size.

236 TRANSACTIONS — PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

1910. Alex. M. Rodger.

Note on Paludestrina jenkinsi, Smith, new to Perthshire.
Id., p. LXIX.

Got by Mr. Wm. Barclay in the Tay, near Elcho, in 1906.

1910. Charles Oldham.

Note on Umax tenellus in Perth East. Jl. of Con., XIII.,
148. (See also Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., 1911, p. 123.)

Found it feeding in a birch wood at Pitlochry, also vars. cincta
and cerea. In the same place he also found Arion ater, A.
intermedins , and A. subfuscus, vars. succinea and fuliginea.

1910. William Denison Roebuck.

Report on the Acceleration of the Census, in 1909. Jl. of
Con., XIII., 28.

Total species recorded to date, Perth West, 62 ; Perth Mid., 48 ;
Perth East, 48.

1910. William Denison Roebuck.

Further Report on the Acceleration of the Census, in 1910.
Id., p. 156.

v.-c. 87, Perth West, additions in 1910, 4, total, 66.

v.-c. 88, Perth Mid., do. 17, do. 65.

v.-c. 89, Perth East, do. 19, do. 67.

1913. B. B. Woodward, F.L.S.

Catalogue of the British Species of Pisidium (Recent and
Fossil) in the Collections of the British Museum (Natural
History). Published by Authority of the Trustees of the
Museum.

References to Perthshire species : — P. amnicum in Perth Mid.,
and P. lilljeborgii in Perth Mid.

1914. William Evans.

An additional locality for Succinea oblonga in Forth Area.
Scot. Nat. 1914, p. 120.

Record of the independent discovery of S. oblonga on the North
bank of the Forth, opposite Craigforth, above Stirling, in Perth
West.

1914. John W. Taylor.

Monograph of the Land and Freshwater Mollusca of the
British Isles. Vol. III., Zonitidae, Endodontidae and
Helicidae.

Perthshire References : —

Hyalinia cellaria, var. compacta, in Perth Mid., p. 37 ; var.

complanata, in Perth Mid., p. 38.

H. Helvetica in Perth West, p. 55.

H. alliaria, var. viridula, in Perth West, p. 63.

H. radiatula, var. viridula , in Perth Mid., p. 94 ; H. radiatula,
in Perth West and Perth Mid., p. 104.

HENRY COATES - INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF PERTHSHIRE. 237

H. crystallina, var. contracta, in Perth West, p. 114.

Zonitoides excavatus in Perth West and Perth Mid., p. 139.
Punctum pygmceum in Perth West, Perth Mid., and Perth East,
p. 166.

Pyramidida rupestris in Perth Mid. and Perth East, p. 17 7*

P. rotundata , var. scalaris, in Perth East, p. 187 ; var. alba,
in Perth Mid. and Perth East, p. 190.

Helix nemoralis, var. minor, in Perth Mid., p. 290 ; var. rubella,
in Perth Mid. and Perth East, p. 305.

H. hortensis, var. minor, in Perth Mid. and Perth East, p. 343 ;
var. ro.seozonata (vino sofas data, Coates) in Perth Mid., p. 353;
var. roseolabiata in Perth East, p. 358 ; var. fuscolabris in Perth
Mid., p. 359.

Helidgona arbustorum, var. rudis, in Perth East, p. 431 ; var.
picea, sub-var. fusca, in Perth West, p. 432 ; var. alpicola
[ =alpestris~\ in Perth Mid. and Perth East, p. 436.

Punctum pygmceum in Perth Mid., p. 473 [Appendix],

1915. Henry Coates, F.S.A. Scot.

Note on Freshwater Mollusca taken at Dupplin Loch.
Proc., P.S.N.S., Vol. VI., p. Cl. (see also p. CVII.).

Record of 7 species taken during an Excursion of the Society
on May, 24, 1915, namely : — Anodonta cygncea, Acroloxus

lacustris, Planorbis albus, P. crista, P. contortus, P. fontanus,
and Pisidium nitidum.

1916. John W. Taylor, F.L.S., M.Sc.

Monograph of the Land and Freshwater Mollusca of the
British Isles. Vol. IV., Part 22. HeficTdae (continued).

Perthshire References : —

Hygromia striolata in Perth East, p. 14.

H. hispida, var. albocincta, in Perthshire. [Near Bridge of
Allan, in Perth West; see Trans., Stirling Nat. His. and Arch.
Soc., 1895-96, p. 1 41 . ]

1917. Henry Coates, F.S.A. Scot.

Note on the Occurrence of Testacella scutulum in
Perthshire. Scot. Nat., 1917, p. 142.

Record of the finding of T. scutulum at the Gardens, Dunbarney
House, Bridge of Earn, in Perth Mid., in April, 1917.

1917. W. D. Roebuck, F.L.S.

Census Authentications. Jl. of Con., XV., 190.

Record of Balea perversa got at Braco, Perth West, in August,
1908, by Mr. Fred. Smith, Jun.

1917. W. D. Roebuck, F.L.S,

Census Authentications. Id., p. 223.

Record of Pisidium nitidum got at Loch Dochart, Perth West,
by Rev. G. A. Frank Knight.

238 TRANSACTIONS — PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

1918. William Evans, F.R.S.E.

Note on Pisidium personatum, Malm., in Mid. Perth.
Scot. Nat., 1918, p. 71.

Found in a Tarn at an altitude of about 3,000 feet on Cru-y-Ben,
Tarmachans, near Killin, in July, 1909.

1918. W. Denison Roebuck, M.Sc., F.L.S.

Limncea glabra as a Scottish Mollusca. Id., p. 113.
Records of its occurrence in Perth West and Perth East.

1918. W. Denison Roebuck, M.Sc., F.L.S.

Paludestrina jenkinsi in Scotland. Id., p. 142.

Record of its occurrence in Perth Mid.

1920. The late W. Denison Roebuck, M.Sc., F.L.S.

[died February, 15, 1919.]

Census Authentications. Jl. of Con., XVI., 101.

Records of Paludestrina jenkinsi in the Tay near Elcho by Wm.
Barclay, August, 1906, and Testacella scutulum at Dunbarney
House, near Bridge of Earn, by H. Coates, April, 1917.

1921. The late W. Denison Roebuck, M.Sc., F.L.S.

Census of the Distribution of British Land and Fresh¬
water Mollusca. Jl. of Con., XVI., pp. 165-212.
Published June, 1921, as the Roebuck Memorial Number
of the Journal, with five Plates of Distribution Maps.

This Census contains the names of 163 species, of which 115 have
been authenticated for Scotland, 66 for Perth West and Clack¬
mannan (v.-c. 87), 65 for Perth Mid. (v.-c. 88), 64 for Perth East
(v.-c. 89), and 83 for Perthshire as a whole.

1922. A. K. Lawson.

Note on Limncca peregra, var. lacustris, from the River
Tay, Perth ; and Ancylus fluviatilis, from Millbrook,
Perth.* Jl. of Con., XVI., 269.

1922. Prof. A. E. Boycott, F.R.S.

Additions to the Census of June, 1921. Id. 274.

Additional Record, Paludestrina jenkinsi in Perth East, per E.
Crapper and H. Coates. Azeca tridens in Perth West, omitted
from the Census through an oversight.

1922. Ellis Crapper.

Paludestrina jenkinsi in Scotland. Id., p. 275.

Describing the Perthshire records.

* “ Millbrook, Perth,” should be Sawmill Stream, River Tay, Perth. H.C.

IV.— TABLE OF DISTRIBUTION OF PERTHSHIRE SPECIES.

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H. COATES ON ARTESIAN BORING, WATER HOUSE, PERTH. 245

XVII. — Geological Deductions from the Strata passed through in
the Artesian Boring at the Water House, Perth, August, 1917.

By Henry Coates, F.R.S.E.

(Read 8th February, 1918.)

Although the boring carried out at the Perth Water House last
summer was not successful from an economic point of view, it has
yielded some exceedingly interesting geological results. It . so
happens that the point where the bore is situated is one where
several stratigraphieal problems of considerable complexity present
themselves, and never before, on the actual site of Perth itself,
have we been able to see, as it were, into the solid crust of the
earth, to a depth of 450 feet. As this depth is equivalent to more
than the height of Craigie Wood Hill, which rises to the south
west, it is evident that it very considerably enlarges our range
of vision. When we come to examine the contents of the bore,
we shall find that* they contain examples of the three phases of
geological activity represented in the deposits of Strathmore and
the lower reaches of the Tay valley, — phases widely separated from
each other in point of geological time. Before making a detailed
examination of the bore, however, let us make a general survey of
the stratigraphieal framework which surrounds it.

The Water House, inside which the bore was drilled, is situated
at the corner of Tay Street and Marshall Place, with the north-east
corner of the South Inch opposite to it on the south, and the River
Tay opposite to it on the east. The bore is 31 yards west from the
river, and starts at an elevation of 18.2 feet above Ordnance Datum,
the latter being very little below the mean level of the river at this
point. Referring now to the geological map of the district, we
find that this point lies in the middle of the alluvial deposits of the
River Tay, which is here still flowing due south, although a mile
further on it turns abruptly to the east. This alluvial plain, on
which stand the City of Perth and its two Inches, is made up of
the lower and upper haughlands of the river’s most recent action.
To the east it is flanked by the steeply rising western slope of
Kinnoull Hill, composed entirely of a series of volcanic rocks —
andesites, tuffs and agglomerates — of Old Red Sandstone age. To
the west it is flanked by the much more gentle slope of the
undulating hills which lie between the Almond and the Earn, and
u

246 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

which are made up of massive beds of the Lower Old Red Sand¬
stone. Both these sandstones to the west and the volcanic rocks
to the east dip moderately steeply to the north-west, that is,
towards the central axis of Strathmore, the horizon of the volcanic
rocks being- underneath that of the sandstones. The actual dip in
the bore is about 8| degrees.

So far, the geotectonic structure is comparatively simple. It
is when we turn our eyes southwards that perplexities arise.
Immediately to the south, just beyond the bend of the river at the
south end of Moncreiffe Island, we encounter another barrier of
volcanic formation, forming the range of hills lying between the
Tay and the lower course of the Earn from Forgandenny down¬
wards. This range, which is about five miles long, embraces
Craigie Wood Hill, Kirton Hill, and Moncreiffe Hill. The beds
of which it is made up are identical with those of Kinnoull Hill,
which they underlie, and they dip in the same direction — towards
the north-west — and at practically the same angle. They are,
therefore, evidently a continuation of the same series, and form a
south-western outlier of the Sidlaw range.

The very statement of these topographical facts brings us face
to face with one of the local problems to which I have referred.
Why has the River Tay, so to speak, dashed its head against
this rocky barrier to the south, and then continued its course
eastwards and seawards along the summit of what is really an
anticlinal arch? Why did it not find an outlet to the sea along the
trough of the Strathmore syncline to the north, or, at least, if it
wTas determined to choose a channel between the SidlawTs and the
Ochils, why did it not skirt round the western flank of the Mon¬
creiffe Hill range? These questions cannot be answered in a
sentence, but I think the solution may be summed up in the two
terms, Fault and Dip. It may perhaps enable us to find the key
to the puzzle more easily if we first examine the course of the
lower Earn valley, from Forgandenny down to its junction with
the Tay valley, and thence eastwards through the Carse of Gowrie,
which, as we shall find presently, is the true continuation of the
Earn valley, both topographically and geologically. The topo¬
graphical unity is evident on any map of the district, where the
general trend of the respective alluvial areas is seen to be
continuous, the one with the other. Geologically, the homologous
structure is seen when we trace the two parallel lines of fault which
bound first the lower Earn valley, and then the Carse of Gowrie,
on their northern and southern flanks respectively. The most
northerly of these faults runs continuously along the foot of the
southern escarpment of Moncreiffe Hill, from Craigend to Fingask,
where it disappears under the alluvial deposits of the Tay, and
under the River Tay itself. It reappears on the northern side of

H. COATES ON ARTESIAN BORING, WATER HOUSE, PERTH. 247

the Carse of Gowrie about Kinnaird, at the foot of the southern
escarpment of the Sidlaws, and thence continues right down to
Dundee. The line of fault on the southern boundary of the lower
Earn valley commences at Glenearn, and passes by Dron, Aber-
nethy, and Newburgh, at the foot of the northern escarpment of
the Ochils, after which it is lost beneath the alluvial deposits of
the Carse. We thus see that the River Earn and its continuation
eastwards, the Tav below the junction, run continuously between
these two lines of fault, whereas the River Tay, before its junction
with the Earn, cuts across the northern fault. These two faults,
however, are not merely the boundaries of what we may call, for
want of a better name, the Earn-Gowrie valley — they are actually
the cause of it. The reason of this is that they enclose what is
called a Fault-trough, that is to say, the strata of solid rocks
between them have sunk down in a wedge-like mass, while the
strata to the north and south of them, outside of the trough, have
been correspondingly forced up, during some great secular upheaval
and fracturing of the earth’s crust in this region, subsequent to
the laying down of the Old Red Sandstone and Carboniferous
formations. That it was subsequent to carboniferous times is
evident from the fact that a small remnant of carboniferous strata
has been preserved at Dron by being- thrust down into the trough,
and thus preserved from denudation and obliteration.

Now, we have accounted for the Tay choosing a course along-
the Carse of Gowrie, where, following the good example of the
Earn, it takes the line of least resistance, along the channel
prepared for it by the formation of the Fault-trough. We have
not yet, however, brought it into the “ Channel of Ease,” that is
to say, we have not yet accounted for the part of its course from
the Water House down to its junction with the Earn. This course
consists of three sections : — First, from the Water House to Easter
Tarsappie, approximately south-east, or in line with the dip of
the rocks ; Second, from Easter Tarsappie to Sleepless Island,
approximately north-east, or in line with the strike and outcrop
of the rocks ; and, Third, from Sleepless Island to the junction
with the Earn, approximately south-east again, or again in line
with the dip of the rocks. These changes of direction must not be
confused with the windings of a stream athwart its alluvial plain,
for we are here dealing with a river confined between ramparts of
solid volcanic rock. The second section is the easiest to account
for, because a stream can with comparative ease find its way
along the plane of bedding of inclined strata, especially where,
as at this point, a rather more friable series of beds crops out to
the surface. Such are the beds of volcanic ash and agglomerate
which here present themselves, interbedded between the more solid
iavas.

248 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

We have now pushed our problem back to its furthest and also
its hardest limit. How did the Tay hack its way through — to use
a now familiar phrase — between the volcanic rocks which bound it
on either hand in the region which the City of Perth now occupies?

What makes this the more difficult to explain is the fact that
to do this it had actually to work against the slope of these hard
rocks, which dip towards the north-west, and therefore rise towards
the south-east. Here, again, I think we must look for a solution
in the development of faults. On either side of the river channel
at this point there are smaller subsidiary faults, running approxi¬
mately from north-west to south-east, that is, at right angles
to the great faults bounding the Earn-Gowrie valley, already
described. These transverse faults, as they might be called, would
doubtless produce local dislocations and displacements of the
strata, which would induce runnels to be formed by the streamlets
draining the hill itself, and these in time might easily cut their
way down through the fractured rocks, until at length a channel
was prepared for the mightier waters from the north. The two
faults to which I have referred may be traced — the one running
from Cleeve through Cherrybank and Kirton Hill to a point east
of Hilton junction, and the other cutting across the extreme west
corner of Kinnoull Hill, and losing itself under the alluvial deposits
of Lairwell. It is probable that the third section of the winding
course, from Sleepless Island to the junction with the Earn, is to
be explained by a similar set of circumstances.*

I may appear to have digressed far from the boring in the
Water House, but yet I think you will agree with me that the
problems of local stratigraphy which I have endeavoured to bring
before you are of sufficient importance to rouse our interest in
what the bore has to reveal to us in regard to the strata existing
at hitherto unknown depths. Let us now see what these strata
are, and their relative vertical extension.

Taking the records kept by the water manager, Mr. Robert
Stewart, and by the boring engineer, Mr. Robert Henderson, and
collating them with what we know of the stratigraphical succession
of the district, I make out the complete record to be as follows : —

*For these Faults, and the relation of the different sections of the Tay Valley
to Strathearn and the Carse of Gowrie, see the Sketch Map of the Lower Basin
of the Tay, on page 252.

I have to express my indebtedness to Mr. Thomas McLaren for valuable
assistance in preparing the Diagrams which accompany this paper.

H. COATES ON ARTESIAN BORING, WATER HOUSE, PERTH. 249

Made up Material (Broken Bricks, Stones, etc.),

ft.

IN.

FT.

23

IN.

0

i. Recent River Deposits (Fine Sand & Gravel),

...

...

22

0

2. Ancient River Deposits :

Fine Soft Brown Clay,

40

O

Soft Brown Muddy Sand and Clay, .

50

O

. . .

...

Hard Bound Sand,

3

O

. . .

...

Soft Brown Muddy Sand,

25

6

118

57

...

3. Boulder Clay (Glacial), .

...

6

6

4. Old Red Sandstone Series :

Broken Sandstone (Brash),

2

0

Sandstones proper,

Conglomerate and Grit,

12

0

. . .

. . .

56

0

...

3. Interbedded Volcanic Series (of old Red
Sandstone Age) :

Agglomerate and Tuff,

26

0

70

0

Andesite (Lava),

^7

6

• . .

. . .

Tuff (Volcanic Ash), ...

1

6

. . •

. . .

Amygdaloidal Porphyrite (Vesicular Lava),

22

6

. . .

...

Tuff, ... .

21

6

*59

0

Total Depth of Bore,

45°

0

Leaving- out of account altogether the artificial made-up
material, this record divides itself into two well-defined groups
of strata, namely, 198 feet of detrital material above, and 229 feet
of solid rocks below. The first of these groups may be further
sub-divided into Recent River Deposits, Ancient River Deposits,
and Boulder Clay ; while the second group may be sub-divided into
the series of Old Red Sandstone deposits, and the series of Volcanic
Rocks of contemporaneous age. We may glance at each of these
sub-divisions in turn, taking them in descending order, and see
wThat geological lessons we can derive from each.

1. The Recent River Deposits, 22 feet. These consist of
beds of fine sand and gravel. They are analogous to what we
find in the upper and lower haughlands of the surrounding district,
which have been built up by the river within recent times, and
working at approximately its present level. The beds are roughly
stratified, with some examples of false bedding. The depth is
about what we should have anticipated, for these recent river
deposits are invariably found spread over the alluvial area in a
comparatively thin sheet.

2. The Ancient River Deposits, 118 feet 6 inches. These
consist, for the most part, of soft clays and muddy sands of a
brown colour. This result is highly suggestive, occurring at this

250 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

particular part of the Tay valley. It has to be borne in mind that
these beds are intercalated between the Boulder Clay below and the
Recent River Deposits above, which means that they were laid
down after the close of the great Ice Age, and before the advent
of present topographical conditions. In other words, they are the
result of the work of the river after the Great Ice Sheet had receded
from the Central Valley of Scotland, and before the river had
settled down to its work under present-day conditions. Now,
what do we find in this series of deposits? We find, not beds of
sand and gravel, but tumultuous deposits of clay and muddy sand,
scores of feet in thickness, showing that the river had great masses
of detritus to deal w-ith, which it was not able to carry with it to
its lower reaches, and which it w7as not able to sift out into
successive beds of finer and coarser deposits. The source from
which it derived this vast store of material was doubtless the
immense accumulation of clay and mud which the Ice Sheet left
as a legacy on the plain of Strathmore as it gradually melted
backwards towTards the mountains, which, in turn, were the source
from which much of it had come. A still more significant feature
of this section of the bore, and one for which, I confess, I was
not prepared, is the entire absence of the blue Carse Clays vTfich
are such a characteristic feature of the older deposits both of the
Carse of Gowrie and the Earn Valley.

The great thickness of the Ancient River Deposits is to be
accounted for not only by the fact that the river had more material
to work upon then than now7, but also that several changes of level
took place during Post-glacial times. First, there w7as the great
upheaval, wdien Scotland, in common writh the rest of north-w-estern
Europe, w7as elevated some hundred feet or more, which would
tend to increase the denuding activity of the river. Next came a
period of corresponding subsidence, when the Earn Valley and the
Carse of Gow7rie became filled up wTith estuarine or fluvio-marine
deposits. Lastly, there follow-ed a minor elevation of the land,
which forced the sea to retire once more and enabled the river to
resume its normal functions. It w^as then that it began to build
up the Recent River Deposits which we have already considered.
To my mind, the absence of the blue Estuarine or Carse Clay from
this portion of the Tay Valley, as revealed in the bore, seems to
suggest tw7o things — first, that the estuarine conditions did not
extend across the barrier of Moncreiffe Hill into the portion of the
Tay Valley to the w7est of Kinnoull Hill ; and, second, that the
Carse of Gowrie is, as I have already hinted, the true geological
continuation of the Earn Valley, rather than of the Tay Valley.
I w-ould go further and venture the opinion that the waters of the
Earn flowed down the Carse of Gowrrie long before the waters of
the Tay had eaten their w^ay into that channel. We find further

H. COATES ON ARTESIAN BORING, WATER HOUSE, PERTH.

251

proof in this supposition in the fact that in the boring- we find no
trace of the Buried Forest Beds which are so frequently intercalated
with the clays of the Earn Valley and Carse of Gowrie.

3. The Boulder Clay, 57 feet 6 inches. This deposit consists
of a stiff unstratified clay, with boulders scattered through it, and
represents the work of the Ice Sheet itself, in grinding down and
transporting the rock material which it encountered in its progress
from the mountains towards the sea. Running water has had no
part in the building of this deposit. The feature to be noted about
the Boulder Clay as represented in the bore is its very considerable
depth. If a bed more than fifty feet thick still remained undenuded
after the river had been acting upon it for untold years, we can
have some conception as to the vast accumulations which must
have covered the whole surface of the land immediately after the
final melting of the ice. We have here also a hint as to the
potency of the ice as an eroding agent, for it must have helped
to carve out the valley at this point to a depth of nearly 200 feet.

4. The Old Red Sandstone Series, 70 feet. This series is
represented by 14 feet of sandstone, of which the first two feet
consist of the usual brash, or broken strata, while underneath are
56 feet of conglomerate, graduating into coarse grit. We naturally
expect these rocks to appear first, for they overlie the volcanic
rocks. Yet in the neighbouring slope of Kinnoull Hill, immediately
to the east, they are entirely wanting, the volcanic rocks stretching
down to the very edge of the alluvial plain. To the west, however,
they crop out from beneath the edge of the alluvial deposits,
although they are soon interrupted by the mass of volcanic strata
forming Craigie Wood Hill. This mass, in turn, is abruptly cut
off by the subsidiary transverse fault already referred to, which
runs through Cherrybank. As this Craigie Wood Hill, although
much higher than the sandstone areas on either side of it, actually
consists of older and underlying rocks, it is evident that it must
owe its origin to upheaval, fracturing, and faulting, and it is
natural to infer that the adjoining river channel owes its origin,
at least in part, to the same causes.

5. The Interbedded Volcanic Series, of Old Red Sandstone
Age, 159 feet. This was the last series of rocks passed through
before boring was stopped at a depth of 450 feet from the surface.
It consists of the usual succession of lavas, agglomerates, and beds
of volcanic ash, similar to those found in other parts of the
Sidlaw range.* Some of the lavas are finer grained than others,
while some are amygdaloidal in structure, with larger or smaller
vescicles, or steam cavities, filled with secondary minerals. The
successive beds of agglomerate and tuff occupy pretty much the

* See Proceedings, Vol. VI., Part V., p. ccxviii., for description of the
microscopic structure of these rocks by Mr. G. F. Bates.

252 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

horizons we should expect, corresponding- to the beds of these rocks
which crop out at the foot of the escarpment of Kinnoull Hill to
the south-east. The andesites also correspond to the massive beds
which form the familiar cliffs overlooking- the Tay. The amvgda-
loidal zone is probably that which is exposed at the entrance of
Corsiehill Quarry, about a mile to the east.

In the foregoing- summary of the contents of the bore, I have
tried to correlate each division and sub-division to its corresponding
horizon in the surrounding stratigraphical complex, and in doing
so I have endeavoured to deduce some of the lessons which it has
to teach us regarding the geological history and physiographical
evolution of the district. In closing, it may be of interest to try
to picture to ourselves some of the scenes which have been enacted
in the long drama which that history embraces.

The opening scene, represented by the volcanic rocks at the
bottom of the bore, reveals an ancient sea, stretching northwards
towards the slopes of the distant mountains. That sea has already
been in existence for many long years. Its floor is covered with
vast deposits of brown sand, and its northern and southern margins
wdth accumulations of pebbles, representing the ruins of a once
lofty mountain range. In this sea, which is probably not very
deep, live armour-clad fish and .gigantic crustaceans. In the
foreground, a range of low volcanic islands stretches away towards
the east, from the vents of which there issue at intervals showers
of rock fragments and volcanic dust, followed by streams of lava
which flow far and wide over the islands, and under the shallow sea.

Scene two brings us to a period when the volcanoes have become
quiescent, and when the placid sea again covers the foreground of
the picture. The beds of ash, lava and volcanic fragments are now
almost obliterated by fresh deposits of sand and gravel brought
down by the rivers into the sea.

Our third scene brings us at a single bound from one of the
most ancient to one of the most recent epochs in the earth’s history.
In our bore the Boulder Clay rests directly on the Old Red Sand¬
stone, yet between the laying down of these two deposits whole
eons of geological time have come and gone, leaving not a trace
behind. The scene is now one of profound desolation. As far as
the eye can reach, an unbroken plain of ice stretches away to the
north-west, where a few isolated mountain peaks may be seen
rising above the arctic expanse of glistening white. In the
foreground a range of hills now rises where formerly the volcanic
islands stood, but even that is entirely obliterated by the mantle of
ice which is slowly pushing its way seawards over every obstacle,
grinding the rocks to powder and smoothing the contours of the
hills as it does so.

Scene four opens when the rigours of the Arctic night have

COUPAR ANCUS

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GEORGE F. BATES ON LOUIS PASTEUR.

253

passed away, and, with it, the ice-cap which had covered the land.
In its place it has left a scene of inexpressible confusion. The
plain of Strathmore, stretching- between the nearer hills and the
more distant mountains, is heaped up with vast mounds and
hummocks of mud and clay, intersected by turbid streams, and
dotted over with swamps and lakes.

Our final scene bring-s us a picture of order and beauty which
has been evolved out of the chaos and ruin of the Ice Age through
the beneficent agency of the river, which has smoothed out the
wrinkles from the face of old Mother Earth, and prepared the
valley floor for the transforming activities of plant and animal life.

Thus these five scenes, suggested by the contents of our bore,
bring us down to present-day conditions on the earth’s surface.
What makes them the more impressive is the thought that the gaps
unrepresented in the record are vastly greater than the periods
actually represented, and yet all this orderly sequence of events
took place long before any human intelligence was in existence to
mark their progress. In face of such facts as these it is impossible
not to believe that a higher Intelligence was at work, shaping the
evolving forces of nature to a beneficent end.

XVIII. — Louis Pasteur.

1822 — 1895.

By George F. Bates, B.A., B.Sc.

(Read 9th March, 1923.)

Iwo days after Christmas, 1822, there was born at the little
town of Dole, in eastern France, one who was destined to play a
great part on the stage of human life. This was Fouis Pasteur,
who, directly and indirectly, did more than any other worker to
alleviate the sufferings of mankind and to save his fellow-mortals
from premature and unnecessary death. On the 27th December,
1922, the bells of Dole rang out in celebration of the centenarv of
Pasteur’s birth, and were answered by the bells of all the
neighbouring towns and villages. Paris and New York also kept
the great man’s birth in mind, and almost every newspaper of
importance published an article on his life and work. From May
to October, 1923, an exhibition will be held at Strasbourg, where
for a time he occupied an important post ; and a monument will be
dedicated to his memory.

254 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

I propose this evening- to discuss in an elementary manner the
main features of Pasteur’s scientific work. His personal life and
character are full of interest, but time will only permit of the
briefest allusions thereto.

Thoug-h born at Dole, Pasteur spent his boyhood at the
neighbouring- town of Arbois, where his father, an old soldier of
Napoleon’s army, carried on the business of a tanner. Here
Pasteur received his early education, but his great ambition pvas
to become a “ Normalien,” i.e., a student of the famous Ecole
Normale at Paris. With this end in view he was sent at the age
of 1 6 to a preparatory school in the Quartier Latin. But he could
not settle in his new surroundings — he longed for the smell of the
tannery, and became so home-sick that his health broke down and
he was obliged to return to Arbois. Later on he entered the Royal
College at Besancon, where in 1840 and 1842 he obtained the
preliminary degrees which entitled him to become a candidate for
the Ecole Normale. But, as has happened so often, his genius
was undeveloped or unrecognised, and the man who in a few
years was to become famous as a chemist had been classed as
“ mediocre ” in chemistry. A further year of study was necessary
before he was finally admitted to the Ecole Normale.

Here he worked under the direction of two of the most famous
scientific men of the day — Dumas (1800 — 1884), widely known for
his investigations into several branches of chemical theory, and
Biot (1774 — 1862), a physicist noted for his researches on polarised
light, and the inventor of the polarimeter.

A lecture by Dumas at the Sorbonne gave the inspiration, and
an appointment as laboratory assistant gave the opportunities for
original work, and, curiously enough, his first investigation brought
him into notice and established his position as a research worker of
the highest type, winning the enthusiastic praise of his con¬
temporaries, and particularly of the somewhat emotional Biot.
I shall now endeavour to give a brief account of these early
investigations, keeping myself free, as far as possible, from
technical language.

<T>

Most people know that during the fermentation of grape juice
to form wine, there is deposited in the vats a substance known as
argol, which after purification becomes cream of tartar, familiar
to every housewife. From cream of tartar the almost equally
familiar tartaric acid can be readily obtained, and had, in fact,
been isolated by the chemist Scheele as far back as 1769. Some
fifty years later a substance closely resembling tartaric acid, but
differing from it in certain respects, was found in the grape-vats
at Thann in Alsace. Various investigators worked at it, one of
whom gave it the name of Trauben-saure — acid of grapes, though
in English it is commonly known as racemic acid, from Lat. racemus,
a bunch of grapes. It was reserved for the Swedish chemist
Berzelius (1779- — 1848) to prove that tartaric acid and racemic acid
were identical in composition. This discovery was of the nature

GEORGE F. BATES ON LOUIS PASTEUR.

255

of a bomb-shell, for up to that time it was believed that no two
different compounds could have the same composition — i.e., be
made up of the same elements combined in the same proportions.
It is true that there had been more than one suggestion of such
compounds, e.g., the chemist Wohler had shown in 1828 that the
compounds Urea and Ammonium cyanate had the same composi¬
tion, but at the time of which we speak it was generally believed
that some error had been made in the analyses. At the present
time a very large number of cases is known in which groups of
two or more differing compounds has been proved to have the
same composition, and such groups are known as isomers, or
isomeric compounds. (It may be remarked here that racemic acid
was somewhat of a mystery in more ways than one. It appeared
almost invariably in the manufacture of tartaric acid from argol,
but it was reserved for later investigators to reveal the conditions
under which it was formed. These are now well known, and by
avoiding them the appearance of racemic acid can be reduced to a
minimum). Among the differences between tartaric acid and
racemic acid, the physicist Biot, already mentioned as one of
Pasteur’s teachers, had found that if a ray of polarised light is
passed through a solution of tartaric acid, the plane of polarisation
is rotated to the right, while racemic acid under like conditions had
no effect.

Pasteur, having* undertaken researches on crystals, was led to
examine the salts of the two acids — the tartrates and racemates.
He knew that tartrates were usually hemihedral — that is, that the
crystals showed onlv one half of the normal number of faces
appropriate to the crystalline system ; while the racemates were
holohedral — that is, the crystals showed the full number of such
faces. But on examining crystals of ammonium sodium racemate,
Pasteur found that the crystals were hemihedral, and that they
could be separated by hand into two groups, each group composed
of crystals which resembled those in the other group in the same
way as a right hand resembles a left, or as an object resembles
its mirror-image. From the two forms the corresponding acids
were prepared by processes well known to chemists, and it was
then found that one acid was just the old familiar tartaric acid,
and the other a new form of the same acid, differing from the
original chiefly in the fact that its solution rotated the plane of
polarisation of light to the left. By recombining the two forms
the original racemic acid was obtained, and thus it was found
that this acid is composed of twx> different forms of tartaric acid,
and its optical inactivity is due to the fact that these properties of
the components neutralise one another. The tw7o forms of tartaric
acid constitute the first known example of optical isomerism. To
chemists to-day it appears fairly obvious that if twro different
substances contain the same components in the same proportions,
the difference can only be due to a different arrangement in space
of these components. The branch of chemistry which deals with

256 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

such space arrangements is known as stereo-chemistry, and Pasteur
must be regarded as the founder of stereo-chemistry, though the
Dutch chemist, Van’t Hoff (1852 — 1911) put the theory into its
present form.

Let me try to give you an idea of the theory, which has led to
the most important results in chemistry. Two points must be
noted : —

(i) The carbon atom is capable of uniting with four other atoms

or groups of atoms.

(ii) The carbon atom and its associates are assumed to be

grouped tetrahedrally — the carbon atom being at the
centre and one other atom, or group, at each angle.

(Models were shown to illustrate these points.)

Now the atoms united with the carbon may be all alike, or
unlike, in any proportions. In the extreme case they are all unlike,
and the carbon atom is said to be asymmetrical. By a process of
trial and error with models we may show that two, and two only,
essentially different arrangements are possible in a molecule with
one asymmetrical carbon atom, and these two arrangements are
assumed to represent the two isomeric compounds which are
possible under these condtions.

But if the molecules of the substances contain two asymmetrical
carbon atoms the possibilities are enormously increased. In these
cases it is assumed that the carbon atoms are united to one another
and each of them to three other atoms (or groups). If we call
the carbon atoms (a) and (b), the other atoms united to (a) may be
all different, not only from one another, but from the atoms united
to (b), and the case becomes exceedingly complicated. But if the
atoms (or groups) united to (a) are the same as those united to (b),
the matter is largely simplified, and luckily this is the case with
tartaric acid. By trial and error with models we can find out that
three essentially different arrangements are possible, which may
be represented “ on the flat ” as below : —

R3 R 3 R 3

Ri-

-C— r2

R2— C— Rx

Rx — C — R2

Ra-

-C— Rx

Rx— C— R2

Rx — C — Ro

r3

r3

r3

(1)

(2)

(3)

It will be noted that formulae (1) and (2) are mirror-images of
one another, and may be assumed to represent the two optically

GEORGE F. BATES ON LOUIS PASTEUR.

257

active forms of tartaric acid, which by union in equal proportions
give rise to the inactive racemic acid. But what about formula (3) ?
If our theory is correct it should form a third form of tartaric acid,
and judging by its internal arrangement it should be optically
inactive. For note the sequence of the groups of atoms R1? R2, R3.
In fig. (1) the sequence is counter-clockwise, in fig. (2) clockwise,
in both halves of the molecule, and this arrangement is associated
with optical activity. But when equal and opposite sequences are
combined, optical inactivity results, as in racemic acid. But an
examination of fig. (3) will show that we have equal and opposite
sequences within the molecule, hence the substance represented by
(3) should be inactive. Is there such a substance? Yes, and it
was discovered by Pasteur himself. It is known as meso-tartaric
acid, and Pasteur’s efforts to secure it led on to work which has
rendered him even more famous than his chemical investigations
did. During the process of his investigations Pasteur was led to
the observation that under certain conditions racemic acid was
acted on by the common mould Penicillium glaucum, and undergoes
a kind of selective fermentation, the dextro-tartaric acid being
decomposed first, so that by stopping at the right stage the laevo-
acid can be isolated. This was the first of Pasteur’s fermentation
studies, which have had such momentous results.

In 1852 Pasteur was appointed Professor of Chemistry at the
Faculte of Science at Strasbourg, and two years later became
Professor of Chemistry and Dean of the Faculty of Sciences at Lille.
At this town brewing was an important industry, and on one
occasion he visited a brewery in which some beer had “ g'one
wrong,” and was led to investigate the cause. Finally he was
led to the conclusion that all forms of fermentation, alcoholic or
otherwise, are due to the presence in the fermenting medium of a
specific organism — an organised ferment — each of which acts in
a specific manner when the conditions of its activity — proper
temperature, nutriment, etc. — are fulfilled. Thus, if you want true
alcoholic fermentation you must take care to have present only the
appropriate form of yeast, and so on. Thus the foundations of
scientific brewing were laid, and the industry gradually ceased to
be conducted by “rule of thumb.” Of course, these organised
ferments, of which yeast is the best known, had been recognised
before Pasteur’s day, but the view was taken that they were the
result, not the cause, of fermentation. Berzelius regarded fermenta¬
tion as a catalytic process ; Liebig that yeast was an unstable
substance which in its ready decomposition set in motion the mole¬
cules of the fermentive matter, but in Pasteur’s words, “ The
chemical act of fermentation is essentially a correlative phenomenon
of a vital act, beginning and ending with it.” (This is not quite
true, for the real cause of alcoholic fermentation is an “ unorganised
ferment,” zymase, discovered in yeast by Buchner in 1897, though
the possibility of its existence had been suggested by Berthelot
in 1858).

2 58 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

It must be emphasised that processes like the souring of milk,
decay of organic matter, are really fermentations, each due to a
specific organism or group of organisms.

When Pasteur’s results were made known, they quickly “ set
the heather on fire.” Up till then it had been firmly believed by
scientific men that low forms of life, such as Pasteur’s organised
ferments, were spontaneously generated in appropriate media and
under suitable conditions. It was, and is, well known that jam
will ferment, milk turn sour, meat go bad, etc., if these are simply
exposed to air, without the actual addition of any organisms,
though these organisms may be found abundantly in the fermenting
or decaying substance. The old school believed that physical
conditions produced the changes, and that the “ germs ” were
spontaneously generated, but Pasteur proved to demonstration
that if means be taken to exclude air-borne germs from a previously
sterilised medium, no changes will take place in the latter, and
no germs will appear, and thus the theory of spontaneous generation
received its death-blow.

Two results, of supreme importance to mankind, have followed
from this work of Pasteur, and depending- upon the fact that the
processes of fermentation, souring, and decay are all similar in
principle, and only occur in the presence of the appropriate
organism.

We place first the modern processes of food preservation. If
we can, by any means, destroy any germs which may already exist
in our food, and then prevent the access of fresh germs, the food
will keep as long as the conditions are fulfilled. So closely is this
process associated with the name of Pasteur, that the process of
partial sterilisation, e.g., of milk, with a view to prolonging its
period of remaining sweet, is known as “Pasteurisation.” The
apparent failure in food preservation, which has often caused
disastrous results, e.g., in the Loch Maree Hotel case, is due either
(i) to imperfect sterilisation, or (2) to imperfect sealing.

But perhaps of greater importance, from some points of view,
is that triumph of modern science known as aseptic surgery, and
in association with which the name of Lister is ever memorable.
I shall quote before closing a passage which gives some idea of
the present and past state of matters in this connection, but it will
suffice to state here that in the memory of men still living, a
surgical operation, even the slightest, was a thing to be dreaded,
lest the wound should become infected by air-borne germs which
might give rise to the most serious, or even fatal results. Lister
saw the connection between Pasteur’s work on ferments and his
own surgical processes — keep out the germs, destroy any that may
have gained access, and in normal cases the wound will heal in
a healthy manner. It is not to be wondered at that the type of mind
which opposed Pasteur also opposed Lister, and he had a long
struggle before he overcame ancient prejudices. The Franco-
Prussian war of 1870-71 afforded an object lesson on a grand scale,

GEORGE F. BATES ON LOUIS PASTEUR. 259

and it has been said that while Lister was pushing Pasteurism in
Edinburgh, Pasteur was developing Listerism in the hospitals of
Paris. It need hardly be said that Lister’s principles have prevailed
in every civilised country — aseptic surgery is the rule, no operation
being carried out without the strictest precautions to prevent access
to the wound of all those air-borne germs which formerly gave rise
to the complications which took so heavy a toll of human life.

During the late war every precaution was taken to keep wounds
aseptic from the first, and it cannot be questioned that, large as
the loss of life was, it would have been enormously greater but for
the work of Pasteur and Lister.

From 1865 to 1870, while continuing his work on Bacteria, and
laying the foundations of the science of Bacteriology, Pasteur
investigated, at the request of Dumas, the two diseases of the
silk-worm, known as pebrine and flacherie, which were at that time
threatening to destroy the silk industry of France. He found that
the diseases were due to the presence in the insects at all stages —
eggs, larva, imago — of a unicellular organism, sporozoon or
bacterium. Neither Pasteur nor any one else has found a method
of destroying the germ without at the same time destroying the
insect, but the preventive methods introduced by Pasteur —
destruction of infected insects, examination by the microscope of
eggs with a view to destruction if found to be infected, fumigation
with chlorine, combined with scrupulous cleanliness — keep the
disease in check, and are estimated to save from 30 to 50 million
francs per annum — a very conclusive answer to the people who
can see no good in research work, and have no approval for any
expenditure which does not bring an immediate return in hard
cash. Who could have thought that when Pasteur was working
at crystals of tartrates and racemates that he would be gradually
led on till he became the saviour of one of the most important
industries of his native land — and that perhaps one of the least
important of his attainments, for he was destined to go on from
strength to strength, conferring higher and higher benefits, not
only on his beloved France, but upon all mankind.

H is success with pdbrine and flacherie led on to further
investigations — this time into diseases affecting higher animals than
silk-worms. From 1877 to 1881 he worked mainly at three
diseases — anthrax, chicken cholera, and swine erysipelas. Sheep
and cattle, poultry, and pigs were perishing in large numbers from
these diseases, and the careful and thrifty French peasantry saw
themselves faced with ruin. But Pasteur was enabled, not only
to determine the cause of each disease, but to indicate the remedy.
He proved conclusively that the cause in each case was the
presence, in the tissues of the affected animal, of a specific
organism, and following Koch, who in 1876 had established a
method of making “ pure cultures ” of bacteria, etc., he was able
to cultivate the germs in question on appropriate media outside the
animal body, and to use these cultures as a means of protection

260 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

against the disease, and to reduce the mortality from 10% to i%.
We shall discuss this point more fully in a few minutes, but note
at this stage that, with the sole exception of vaccination for
small-pox, introduced by Jenner, who died when Pasteur was a
month old, every up-to-date process of inoculation and treatment
of infectious disease by antitoxins has its foundations in the work
and discoveries of Pasteur. For while Jenner ’s discovery was
empirical, Pasteur’s work was based upon that sure scientific basis
which may give rise to a never-ending series of developments,
continuing long after the original investigator is at rest from his
labours. This has been pre-eminently the case with Pasteur, and,
as has been well said, while Jenner made a discovery, Pasteur made
discoverers.

The value of the live-stock saved for France was estimated by
Huxley as being equal to the total amount of the indemnity paid
by France to Germany after the Franco-Prussian war.

It is, however, by his researches on hydrophobia that Pasteur
is best known ; and to this subject he devoted his years between
1880 and 1885, when he began the process of inoculation for this
disease. Very few people nowadays have ever seen a mad dog,
and yet half-a-century ago or so the sight must have been not
uncommon. Can we imagine the thrill of horror which would go
through a community at the cry of “ Mad Dog ! ” ? How the timid
would rush for a place of safety and the bolder spirits arm them¬
selves with all sorts of weapons for the capture and destruction of
the dangerous beast. For hydrophobia was a real terror — 15%
of those bitten by a mad dog contracted the disease, and the
mortality was practically 100 per cent. Thanks to stringent
regulations regarding importation of animals, rabies in dogs and
hydrophobia in human beings are almost unknown in this country,
though only the other day we read of a rabid cat in Ireland. But
other countries are not so fortunate.

Strangely enough, neither Pasteur nor any of his successors
has definitely succeeded in finding the actual germ of hydrophobia,
and yet with the knowledge derived from his earlier investigations
Pasteur was able to devise a remedy which reduced the mortality
from 100% to 1%.

Leaving for a while the purely historical method which we have
hitherto followed, let us digress for a moment to consider the
general principles of protective medicine.

1. Infectious or contagious diseases are due to the development
within the body of some definite germ, usually a humble
form of plant life, known as a bacillus or bacterium, but
in some cases of an animal nature. The germ never
originates de novo , but gains admittance to the body
from outside, in various ways. For many diseases the
germ has actually been identified ; in other cases its
existence is strongly suspected.

GEORGE F. BATES ON LOUIS PASTEUR. 261

2. The injury is not done directly by the mere presence of the

germ, but by poisonous substances produced thereby.
These poisons are known as toxins.

3. The body has two natural forms of protection : (a) the

phagocytes (white blood corpuscles) have the power of
ingesting and thus destroying the actual germs, and (b)
the power of producing substances (antitoxins) which are
capable of neutralising the action of the toxins. In the
more deadly forms of infectious disease, if the toxins
prevail the patient dies ; if the phagocytes and antitoxins,
he recovers.

4. Disease germs can as a rule be cultivated outside the body.

They require proper temperature, moisture, and a suitable
nutritive medium. Their life history can thus be studied
in detail. The characteristic toxins are also produced.

5. The vigour of the germ and the consequent virulence of

the toxin may be exalted or attenuated by appropriate
modifications in the method of culture, or by other means.

6. A dose of the attenuated virus, or a succession of such

doses, usually administered as a sub-cutaneous injection,
carefully adjusted to the circumstances of the case, will,
in some diseases, produce a mild attack and lead to a
development of antitoxins, which, once developed, confer
immunity from more serious attacks for a longer or
shorter period.

These general principles were discovered by Pasteur in the
course of his investigations on the diseases of domestic animals
previously referred to, but it is in his treatment of hydrophobia
that they receive their fullest illustration.

As has already been said, the actual germ of hydrophobia still
awaits discovery. But Pasteur found that rabies in dogs was closely
connected with the central nervous system, and that the cerebro¬
spinal fluid carried the infection. Thus, an injection of the
cerebro-spinal fluid of a rabid dog into a healthy animal brings
about the death of the latter in 12 or 14 days. If the virus be passed
through a succession of monkeys, it becomes so weakened or
attenuated that it is no longer capable of producing fatal results.
On the other hand, if the monkey virus, or the original dog virus,
be passed through a succession of rabbits, its virulence becomes so
exalted that it will kill a healthy dog in 6 days. This was termed
by Pasteur a “ virus fixe ” or standard virus, as it could be
depended upon to produce a definite result. For treatment, rabbits
are inoculated with standard virus, and their spinal cords are
subsequently removed, cut into segments (held together by the
dura mater, or tough outer covering of the cord) and suspended in
sterile flasks over solid caustic potash. Thus they gradually dry,
and at the same time the virulence falls, till about the 14th or 15th

v

262 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

day it ceases to be lethal. By proceeding in this way it is possible
to have “ on hand ” hydrophobia virus of varying strength, from
a deadly quality which will kill in 6 days, to a feeble state which
will not kill at all. These facts were established by experiments
on lower animals, but in 1885 Pasteur applied his treatment to
human beings. The patient receives first a sub-cutaneous dose of
the weakest virus, prepared from a spinal cord which has been
kept as noted above for about 13 or 14 days. Then for a period of
15 to 21 days he receives a daily injection of gradually increasing
virulence, until he is able to tolerate a dose prepared from a cord
of the third day. Fortunately the period of incubation of hydro¬
phobia in the human subject is a long one, and the treatment
above outlined gives a chance of obtaining- for the patient complete
acclimatisation or protection before the incubation period is com¬
plete and the attack develops.

The first “ Institut Pasteur ” was opened in Paris on the 14th
November, 1888, for the treatment of persons bitten by rabid
animals. Its beneficent work is still continued, although its first
Director has been dead for nearly 18 years. Similar institutes have
been established in other countries, notably in India, and the death
rate over the whole world from hydrophobia is less than 1 per cent.

Had the fame of Pasteur depended solely upon his researches
on hydrophobia, he would still have ranked as one of the foremost
benefactors of the human race, but as we have seen, his pioneer
work was of such a nature that it inevitably inspired further
investigations. Disease germs unknown to Pasteur have now been
discovered, and in some cases, at least, have shown themselves
amenable to treatment similar to that discovered by Pasteur for
hydrophobia.

A notable discovery was that which substituted the killed virus
for the attenuated living substance ; and at least four other diseases
are now being treated by methods arising out of Pasteur’s work.
As an example we may note that anti-diphtheritic serum may be
prepared as follows : —

1. Toxins may be isolated from the germs producing them.

2. Symptoms of disease may be produced by administration

of these.

3. Animals, e.g., horses, can be gradually acclimatised,

4. And are then capable of resisting attacks of actual germs.

5. Blood serum of an animal artificially immunised is itself

antitoxic — preventive and curative.

In addition to diphtheria, typhoid, tetanus, and plague may
be counteracted by antitoxin serums with a fair prospect of success,
and the mortality from these diseases has been enormously reduced.

We can perhaps best estimate the value of Pasteur’s work by
comparing the state of matters now with what it was in pre-Pasteur

GEORGE F. BATES ON LOUIS PASTEUR.

263

days. For this purpose I cannot do better than give one or two
quotations from articles which appeared in the “ Times ” at the
time of the centenary in December last.

“ Preventive medicine, with its auxiliary services of sanitation,
water supply, food inspection, and hygiene remained as yet but a
dream. Surgery was attended by dangers so great as to inspire
in the general mind a horror unrelieved by any gleam of hope.
Plagues and pestilences of many kinds swept at short intervals
over Europe and the world, destroying vast numbers of human
lives and taking, besides, a heavy toll of flocks and herds. Whole
industries were not infrequently placed in jeopardy by unseen
forces which defied the most scrupulous attempts to stay their
havoc. It was an age of great intellectual activity, yet its negative
outlook found many expressions, and none, perhaps, more signifi¬
cant than the doctrine of spontaneous generation of life.

Pasteur, in consequence of his studies of fermentation, attacked
this doctrine with all the passion of his soul — he disproved it in a
series of experiments, the authenticity of which has never been
successfully assailed. In its stead he gave to the world his
discovery of the kingdom of the infinitely small ; those minute atoms
of life, renewed from generation to generation, which by their
ceaseless activity make and unmake our world.

Whatever the philosophical consequences of his labours may
have been, their scientific results were instant and overwhelming.

Within the space of a few years bacteriology became an exact
science. Disease after disease was conquered ; the blight which
threatened to destroy the silk industry of France ; the fatal charbon,
or anthrax, which was thinning out the flocks and herds of so
many farmers ; the fearful blood-poisoning which haunted surgeons
and accoucheurs in every country, and rendered their work terrifying
beyond exaggeration ; finally, hydrophobia itself.

In this country the work of Lister, a direct outcome, as he
freely acknowledged, of Pasteur’s researches, created a new
surgery. A new tropical medicine was soon on its way, for the
kingdom of the infinitely small is as wide as the world.”

And again : —

Like a hero of romance this man of science came to a world
vexed by dreadful unseen foes. Industries, the support of number¬
less poor folk, were sickening ; plague took usurious toll of the
herds and flocks of farmers and peasants. Man himself, though
familiar with disease as with the changing seasons, went in fear
of catastrophe. Year after year, thousands were stricken down
in all lands by the fevers which followed so often even the most
insignificant of wounds. A more terrible fever cast its ever-
lengthening shadow on motherhood. Diphtheria and typhoid
extinguished annually countless young lives, while the instant
horror of the rabid dog haunted the minds of all.”

Pasteur died at St. Cloud on 28th September, 1895, but in very
truth, “ His soul goes marching on.” He was utterly unspoiled

264 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

by the repeated successes which had entered so largely into his life.
With regard to his scientific work it was the outcome of three
notable characteristics— devotion to work, patient research, and
quick and exact observation. In his own words, “ These three
things — will, work, success — share the whole of human existence.
The will opens the doors to brilliant and fortunate careers ; work
steps through, and once arrived at the end of the journey, success
comes to crown the labour.”

In closing this brief account of the work of a truly great man,
I quote a few sentences from his speech at the opening of the
Pasteur Institute on the 14th November, 1888 ; words uttered nearly
thirty-five years ago, but still, alas ! terribly true : — “ Two
opposing laws seem to me now in contest. The one, a law of
blood and death, opening out each day new modes of destruction,
forces nations to be always ready for the battle. The other, a law
of peace, work, and health, whose only aim is to deliver man from
the calamities which beset him. The one seeks violent conquests,
the other the relief of mankind. The one places a single life above
all victories, the other sacrifices hundreds of thousands of lives to
the ambition of a single individual. The law of which we are the
instruments strives even through the carnage to cure the wounds
due to the law of war. Treatment by our antiseptic methods may
preserve the lives of thousands of soldiers. Which of these two
laws will prevail, God only knows. But of this we may be sure,
that Science, in obeying the law of humanity, will always labour
to enlarge the frontiers of life.”

XIX. — Potamogetons 0/ the Earn District oj Perthshire.

By J. R. Matthews, M.A., F.L.S.

(Read 13th April, 1923.)

Although Perthshire has long been systematically explored and
its phanerogamic flora is exceptionally well known, it would be
rash to say that nothing more remains to be done towards a study
of the distribution of the flowering plants of the county. The more
outlying parts require further exploration, while even the more
accessible and better known districts frequently yield interesting
additions to the local lists. This appears to be especially true in
the case of aquatic species which, from the nature of their habitat,
are often difficult to gather, if not entirely overlooked.

J. R. MATTHEWS ON POTAMOGETONS OF THE EARN DISTRICT. 265

My own field-work on the water-plants of the county has been
largely limited to the district of Lowland Earn. In 1912 some
specimens of a Potamogeton obtained from the Whitemoss Loch
which I considered to be P. pusillus , L., proved to be P. trichoides ,
Cham. & Schlecht. This constituted the first record for the plant
in Scotland, and indicated a very considerable northern extension
of its range in Britain. Again, in 1915, Mr. Barclay and I were
fortunate in finding in the River Earn, Potamogeton venustus,
Baagoe — a hybrid betweeen P. crispus and P. alpinus. This was
another addition to the Scottish flora — a plant hitherto known, in
fact, only from Denmark and possibly Bavaria, although I have
since heard from Mr. A. Bennett that he has in his herbarium a
specimen which is this hybrid collected in the year 1900 in the
River Ythan, North Aberdeen, by the late Professor Trail. Three
years ago I brought before the notice of the Society as an instance
of recent dispersal the occurrence of Zannichellia palustris in Keltie
Loch, and now I have to record the discovery of two Potamogetons
whose names do not appear on the Perthshire List. These are
P. pectinatus , L. and P. panormitanus , Biv. Bern. The plants
made their appearance in a small ornamental pond constructed in
1910 on the Estate of Keltie, not far from the loch of that name.
Numerous aquatic species established themselves in this artificial
pond despite regular efforts to keep the unwelcome immigrants in
check, and at various dates I made gatherings. We may refer
to the locality as Keltie Pond, where in July, 1919, the two pond-
weeds just mentioned were first noticed.

Potamogeton pectinatus , L. is widely distributed in the British
Isles, being recorded (London Catalogue, 1908) for 90 Watsonian
vice-counties from Cornwall to Orkney, while it occurs in 28
divisions in Ireland ; yet in Perthshire it has not hitherto been
noted beyond the record given in the “ Flora ” for Clackmannan,
which Watson included under West Perth. The interesting feature
in the present instance is its sudden appearance in a recently con¬
structed pond in an area more or less isolated and remote from the
chief lake centres of the county, where the plant may or may not
occur. Whether or not it exists in the Whitemoss, the nearest
loch to Keltie, I am at present unable to say.

Potamogeton panormitanus , described by Bivona Bernardi in
1838, has long been regarded as a variety of P. pusillus, if not
actually considered the same as that species. Already there are
indications that it is a wide-ranging species in Britain. It has been
recorded from Surrey and from Orkney, besides several inter¬
mediate stations, and it doubtless occurs in the Perthshire lochs,
but taken as a form of pusillus. The plant is restored to full
specific rank by Dr. Hagstrom (1916), who gives a detailed account
of it in his exhaustive work entitled “ Critical Researches on the

266 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

Potamogetons,” pp. 98—103. It differs from P. pusillus in its
mode of growth, in having usually a yellowish tinge of colour to
the leaves and in the possession of stipules which are connate and
not convolute.

It is not unusual nowadays for a student of a particularly
difficult genus to place an ever finer meaning on the conception of
species, and the remarkable plasticity exhibited by Potamogeton
and other aquatic genera offers ample opportunity for the creation of
numerous varieties and forms based largely on vegetative features.
Such studies are of real value if they lead ultimately to a better
understanding of plant-structure, relationship, and behaviour. It
is as a result of having examined my sheets of Potamogeton from
Lowland Earn in the light of Hagstrom’s researches that the
following notes have been drawn up. Mr. Arthur Bennett, who
has seen the specimens, has also kindly given me much help, and
some of his observations are incorporated below.

Potamogeton poly g oni joints, Pour., var. cordifolius , Cham. & Sch.

Hagstrom, discussing this species, says (op. cit. p. 177) that it
has a tendency to lengthen the petioles, and only land-forms possess
shorter petioles, although even in these they are generally as long
as the blade. In my specimens from the Cow’s Moss, Ochil Hills,
south of Dunning, the upper leaves have petioles up to 130mm.,
while the leaf-blade is 50— 60mm. x 30mm. They exhibit a cordate
or subcordate base, and Mr. Bennett writes that the specimens
agree well with var. cordifolius, Cham. & Schlech. The species
itself is not given with the usual certainty for Lowland Earn in
Dr. White’s “ Flora.”

P. heterophyllus, Schreb.

Hagstrom discusses this species under its earlier name
P. gramineus, L. (pp. 204— 209), pointing out its great variability
under different environmental conditions according to whether the
plant grows in shallow, in deep, or in moving water. What is
practically the typical form of the species occurs in Keltie Loch.
A condition in which the upper floating leaves are small or almost
entirely suppressed sometimes arises, and I have such an example
from the Whitemoss. In the same loch the plant often exhibits
somewhat elongated floating leaves with petioles twice the length
of the lamina.

P. decipiens, Nolte.

This hybrid (P. Lucens x perfoliatus ) is common in the River
Earn. Hagstrom reviews the history of its systematic treatment

J. R. MATTHEWS ON POTAMOGETONS OF THE EARN DISTRICT. 267

and establishes, according- to the size of the leaf, three series ol
forms — latifolius , brevifolius , and longifolius. The Earn specimens,
with leaves about 105mm. x 26mm., come under var. latifolius,
Hagst., but in connexion with varieties based on leaf dimensions
some recent experimental work, to which reference will be made
later, is of great interest.

P. perfoliatus , L.

Specimens from the Earn are robust, with a leaf-shape
approaching- var. rotundifolius , Wallr., while Whitemoss plants are
much smaller, with shorter internodes and small leaves about
30mm. x 10— 12mm. The species is one of the most variable as
reg-ards size and shape of leaves, and the numerous forms, accord¬
ing- to Fryer (British Potamogetons, p. 41) “ are probably

nothing- more than states produced by local and often temporary
conditions. ”

P. crispus, L. , var. planifolius, Meyer.

River Earn above Dalreoch Bridge. Leaves without the un¬
dulate margin, and with a very faint denticulation.

P. crispus x alpinus (x P. venustus, Baagoe).

Hagstrom gives an account of this hybrid (p. 144) from Danish
material, the plant having been recorded only from Denmark at
the time of his researches. He describes the anatomy, peduncles,
and spikes as indicating clearly an affinity with crispus, while the
leaf midrib has also the form of that of crispus. On the other hand,
the leaf-margin is not serrate, and the venation of the leaf recalls
alpinus, but with a reduction in the number of lateral veins. A
reddish tinge in the leaf, more marked after drying, also points to
the influence of alpinus. The leaves of the Earn specimens measure
75— 9°mm. x 7— 9mm.

P. panormitanus, Biv. Bern.

The plant from Keltie pond, July, 1919, is slender, the leaves
being not more than imm. broad.

P. pectinatus, L.

As already stated, this species is given within brackets in Dr.
White’s “ Flora ” as not having been found within the County
boundary, thus — \P. pectinatus, Quarry at Clackmannan (J.
Couper).]. Its discovery in Keltie Pond makes an addition to the
county list, The plant appears as an unusually slender state.

268 TRANSACTIONS - PERTHSHIRE SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

P. filiformis , Nolte.

Very rare in Perthshire, being- known only from the Whitemoss.
The plant still occurs there.

To the foregoing list the following have to be added as
occurring in the Earn districts : — P. natans, L., P. alpinus, Balb.,
P. lucens, L., P. angustifolius , Presl., P. obtusifolius , M. & K.,
P. pusillus, L. , and P. trichoides , Cham. & Schlecht.

Attention has already been drawn to the great variability
exhibited by certain species, and those British botanists who have
studied the genus most carefully have strongly affirmed their belief
that many of the iso-called varieties are in reality only growth-forms
or states, produced under varying environmental conditions. The
problem has been investigated recently by Messrs. Pearsall along
the lines of experimental enquiry, and these workers, dealing
especially v/ith P. pusillus, have shown (Journal of Botany, 1921,
pp. 160—164) that light intensity is the chief factor in producing
variation. Further observations by the same authors (Journal of
Botany, 1923, pp. 1—7) deal with variations observed in the larger-
leaved species. P. perfoliatus is discussed in detail, and from
experimental results the writers are led to suggest that “ the
proportion of lime in the soil is an important factor in determining
leaf-shape in P. perfoliatus, and that along with the effects of light-
intensity, it may enable us to account for all the leaf-variations
observed in this species in nature.”

XX. — Note on Charophytes collected at Lochs Lubnaig and
V ennachar and on Cotyledon Umbilicus found near L. Vennachar.

By Noel J. G. Smith, M.A., B.Sc.

(Read 13th April, 1923.)

The following Charophytes were collected at Loch Lubnaig in
July, 1921 : —

Nitella opaca, Agardh.

N. translucens, Agardh.

N. flexilis (probably) Agardh.

N. spanioclema, Groves and Bullock-Webster.

NOEL J. G. SMITH - NOTE ON CHAROPHYTES.

269

This last Nitella is a particularly interesting- find. The species
was first found by Canon Bullock-Webster in Lough Shannach,
Co. Donegal, in 1916, and has been collected there since, but has
never been recorded elsewhere. Canon Bullock-Webster identified
specimens sent by me from Loch Lubnaig, and noted the new record
for Great Britain in the Journal of Botany , June, 1922.

Plants collected at or near Loch Vennachar at the same date
were : —

Charophyta —

Nitella opaca.

N. translucens.

Flowering Plant —

Cotyledon Umbilicus-Veneris.

The most interesting- find was the Cotyledon, in a wall near
Loch Vennachar. It is not recorded for Perthshire in Buchanan-
White’s Flora, but was, I believe, reported by Traill to occur in
that county, “probably planted.” The specimen I found was a
considerable distance from any house, and had every appearance
of being- a native.

The Charophytes were all named by Canon Bullock-Webster,
and the Cotyledon verified by the Curator of the Herbarium, Royal
Botanic Garden, Edinburgh.

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